4.

0 ELECTRONICS

4.1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Thermionic Emission 1. When the temperature of a metal is raised, electrons which obtain enough energy will escape from the surface of the metal. 2. Thermionic emission involves the release of electrons from the surface of a heated metal

Properties of Cathode Rays

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

They travel in a straight line They cause zinc sulphide to fluorease They defleted by the electric field and magnetic field because they are negatively charge particles They are ionisation They can penetrate very thin graphite layer

Kinetic energy and velocity of Electron

When a voltage V is applied across the cathode and anode of an electron gun The electric energy supplied is : eV Thus, each electron receives a kinetic energy from the electric energy supplied Therefore mv2 = eV where v2 = 2eV e = 1. 6 x 1019 ms-1 m me=9.1 x 10-31 kg

Principle of C.R.O
1. 2.

3.

Three main components: An electron gun A deflection system A fluorescent screen

Electron gun
1.

Component Filament Cathode

1.

2.

2.

3.

Control grid
Focussing anode

3.

4.

4.

5.

Accelerating anode
5.

Function For heating the cathode to emit electron Emits electron when it is heated by the filament Control the number of electron hitting the screen and the intensity Focussing and narrowing the electron beam to form a fine light spot on the screen Accelerates the electron beam to high velocity

Deflection system
1.

2.

3.

Y -plates and X -plates Y -plates are two horizontal plates that can deflect the electron beam vertically X-plates are two vertical plates that can deflect the electron horizontally When a.c voltage is applied to both the Xplates and Y-plates, the light spot will be oscillated vertically and horizontally

Fluorescent screen

Glows and forms a light spot thata can trace out a pattern as long there are electrons hitting it The brightness of the light controlled by adjusting the grid voltage

Uses C.R.O

Measure potential difference Measure short time intervals Display wave forms

Voltmeter can measure d.c and a.c

1.

2.

Without time-base When a dc voltage is connected to Y input,the light spot is deflected upward or downward from the center of the screen as shown in figure When a a.c voltage is connected to Y input , the light spot will moveup and down vertically

 1.

2.

With time-base When a dc is connected with a suitable frequency a steady waveform as shown in the diagram When a ac is connected with a suitable frequency a steady waveform is displayed on the screen

Measuring a short duriation of time

The timebase circuit is switched on. The time-base is set x mscm-1 The Y gain is set to a value If the distance between the two claps d cm Durition of time between the two claps, t=xxd

Displaying Difference Wave Forms

4.2 Semiconductor diodes

Properties of semiconductor

There are four electron in the outermost shell of a silicon atom They are shared between four other neighbouring atoms to form four covalent bonds Carbon, silicon and germanium A pure silicon crystal isnearly an insulator

Doping silicon

In doping , mix a small amount of inpurity into the silicon crystal n-type phosphorus or arsenic is added to the silicon Phosphorus,arsenic and antimony atoms have five outer electron there are electrons free to move around they have negatively charged

P-type

Boron, gallium or iridium each has only three outer electrons When mixed into the silicon lattice,they form hole The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive charge

The p-n junction diode

A diode is made by joining a p-type and n-type semiconductor The boundary between the p-type and n-type regions is called junction The anode made from p-type Cathode made from n-type

Diode as a Rectifier

The proses of converting alternating current into dircet current

4.3 TRANSISTOR

4.3 Transistor

The flow of current in a transistor

Circuit When the circuit is switched on, the baseemitter junction is forward biased A small current IB flowing through the base(B) will combine with IC to produce a large current IE flowing through the emitter When IB = 0, IC = 0 graph

Transistor as an amplifier
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Component Microphone Capacitor Potential divider Transistor loudspeaker

1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

Function To change sound signal to electric To block a direct current from flowing into the transistor and microphone To apply proportion of the total voltage across the emitter-base junction so that the junction is forward biased To amplify the input wave To change electrical signal to sound wave

The transistor as a switch

1.

2.

3.

Light-operated switch Light-dependent resistor (LDR) When it is place in darkness, its resistance is large,voltage is drope across R, a very low base current,the transistor is not switched on When the LDR is illuminated by light, its resistance falls to a small value,the voltage higher, thus raising the base current,the transistor is switch on, the bulb light up When the position of LDR and R are interchange the bulb is switch off in the bright and on in the dark

4.4 LOGIC GATES