Foundations

Foundations
Feature common to bridge and building structures Deep vs. shallow Safely transfer dead and live loads with acceptable levels of settlement

Foundations
Shallow Foundations
spread footings: column, combined, mat strip footings: walls placed on undisturbed or well-compacted soil below frost line consider effects of groundwater typically reinforced or plain concrete

Foundations
Deep Foundations
Piles driven or drilled bearing capacity from end-bearing or skin friction: usually combination of both driven plum or battered (1:6 to 1:3) driven to attain minimum tip elevation or required resistance in blows per foot (bpf)

Foundations
Piles Types timber piles precast/prestressed concrete piles cast-in-place concrete steel H-piles steel pipe piles composite minipiles or micro piles

Foundations
Pile Driving
Equipment mobile crane (usually crawler) leads: fixed or swinging hammer, helmet, & cushion compressor (if air driven) hydraulic unit (if vibratory) steam plant (becoming obsolete)

Foundations
Pile Driving
Equipment follower mandrel Pile accessories point attachments splices pile to cap connections

Foundations
Pile Driving
Hammers steam or air: singleacting, double-acting, differential diesel hammer: singleacting (open end) or double-acting (closed end) vibratory

Pile Driving
Dynamic analysis - wave equation WEAP based on wave propagation theory with input from the static analysis provides relationship between pile capacity and driving resistance i.e.: equates capacity to blow counts predicts pile driving stresses

Pile Driving
Benefits of using wave equation verify piles can be driven to required depth & capacity determine minimum required pile section avoid overstressing pile during driving optimize cost

Pile Driving
Dynamic testing - Pile Driving Analyzers (PDA) and CAPWAP uses strain gauge & accelerometers to measure force & velocity (converts strain to force and acceleration to velocity) field tests the driving hammer and system

Pile Driving
Dynamic testing - Pile Driving Analyzers (PDA) and CAPWAP cost effective method of optimizing the driving system and estimating static pile capacity using CAPWAP, hammer blows can be analyzed to estimate skin friction, end bearing, dynamic damping factors, and soil stiffness

Pile Driving
Pile Load Test (static)
many tests have been used over the years to evaluate or confirm axial and lateral capacities Quick pile load tests (QPLT) are most common QPLT consists of constructing a reaction frame around the test pile the frame is anchored to reaction piles pile is incrementally loaded with an hydraulic jack

Pile Driving

Pile Driving
Pile Load Test (static)
the test load is measured by a load cell deformation is measured with dial gauges, wiremirror-scale, and surveying instruments apply load in 10 to 15% increments, maintaining a 2 minute interval check deformation readings immediately before and after applying load

Pile Driving
Pile Load Test (static)
incrementally increase load until reaching 200% of the design load or until continuos jacking is required to maintain the test load remove the load in 4 equal decrements plot the load-settlement data using the Davisson method the point where the load-settlement curve crosses the failure criterion is the failure load (Qf)

Pile Driving
Other Factors soil setup or freeze - common in clays relaxation - much less common, found in some silts or fine sand restrike pile to verify strength gain or loss 120 bpf is practical, safe, upper limit driving blow count 200 to 240 bpf is practical refusal

Pile Driving
Inspection position, plumb, or batter check cushion; change as necessary record blow counts verify correct operation of hammer check splices check piles for damage check for heave

Pile Driving
Driving Records prepare a sketch of foundation to identify piles and order of installation Drive records include: pile ID and order of installation ground elevation cut-off elevation tip elevation final length blows per foot (final foot recorded in bpi) driving duration location of splices

Foundations
Retaining Walls gravity or cantilever components stem wall horizontal base includes:

toe, heel, & key

weep holes for drainage

Foundations
Temporary Support Structures and sheeting w/wales and tie-backs soldier beams (piles) w/lagging pipe sleeves tremie concrete

Foundations
Underpinning remedial or precautionary remedial adds foundation capacity to inadequately supported structures precautionary - higher loads or changes in ground conditions

Foundations
Underpinning Temporary supports shores needle beams grillage Pit underpinning - used for installing or extending foundation walls or footings Pile underpinning & various other methods