05 Outdoor Observe

July, 2003 2003 by H.L.
Bertoni 1
IV. Propagation Characteristics
Observed in Macro / Micro Cells
Ray model of multipath propagation
Effects caused by multipath for narrowband
(CW) signals
Shadow fading
Range dependence in macrocells and
microcells
July, 2003 2003 by H.L.Bertoni 2
Direct Observation of Multipath at
the Mobile and at the Base Station
Direction of arrival measurements at the mobile
Time delay measurements
Measurement of space-time rays
Ray model of propagation

Angles of Arrival at a Street Level
- CW Measurement at 900 MHz in Tokyo using 22 spot beam antenna -
T. Taga, "Analysis for Mean Effective Gain of Mobile Antennas in Land Mobile Radio Environments", IEEE Trans., VT 39, May 1990, p. 117.
From base station
Rows of
buildings
Mobile locations
along street
Received signal versus azimuth for various elevations
Received Power Envelope P(t) for
Omnidirectional Subscriber Antennas
Paris, France
Red Bank, NJ
Rays come in clusters that decay rapidly. Successive clusters have lower amplitudes.
J. Fuhl, J-P. Rossi and E. Bonek, High-Resolution 3-D
Direction-of-Arrival Determination for Urban Mobile Radio,
" IEEE Trans. Ant. and Prop., vol. 45, pp. 672- 682, 1997.
D.M.J. Devasirvatham, "Radio Propagation Studies in a Small
City for Universal Portable Communications, Proc. of the
IEEE VTC'88, pp. 100-104,1988.
Delay Spread for Continuous Time Signals
Mean Exc ess Delay
T
0
=
tP t ( )dt
0
}
P t ( )dt
0
}
RMS Delay Spread
t
RMS
2
=
t T
0
( )
2
P t ( )dt
0
}
P t ( )dt
0
}
T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall PTR, Upper Saddle River,
NJ, p.163, 1996.
CDF of for Outdoor Links
- Measured at 1800 MHz for many subscriber location in Sweden
- Signals received at base station by horizontal and vertical antennas for
vertical subscriber antenna
RMS delay spread somewhat
larger in urban areas than
in suburban areas.

Co and cross Polarization
have nearly the same RMS
delay.

RMS delay of the average
power delay profile is
approximately the same as
the mean RMS delay spread.
M. Nilsson, B. Lindmark, M. Ahlberg, M. Larsson and C. Beckmanm,
"Measurements of the Spatio-Temporal Polarization Characteristics of a Radio
Channel at 1800 MHz, Proc. IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, 1999.
Greenstein Model of Measured DS in Urban and
Suburban Areas

DS = T
1km
R
km
where T
1km
is 0. 3-1. 0 s and
10log
is a Gaussian random variable
with standard deviation 2 - 6
Greenstein, et al., A New Path Gain/Delay Spread Propagation Model for Digital Cellular Channels, IEEE Trans. VT 46, May 1997.
Space-Time Rays Measured at Street Level
- 890 MHz Measurement in Paris -
- Azimuth and time delay
of arriving rays

- Measured with system
having 0.1 s time resolution

- Street runs North and South

- Many rays arrive along
the street direction
J. Fuhl, J-P. Rossi and E. Bonek, "High-Resolution 3-D
Direction-of-Arrival Determination for Urban Mobile Radio,
IEEE Trans. Ant. and Prop., vol. 45, pp. 672- 682, 1997.
Space-Time Rays at an Elevated Base Station
- 1800 MHz measurements in Aalborg, Denmark -
- Rays arrive at base station
from a limited range of
angles

- Rays are grouped into
clusters

- Time delay between clusters
~ 1 s, representing
scattering
from more distant buildings

- Time delay within a cluster
~ 100 ns
K.I. Pedersen, et al., "Analysis of Time, Azimuth and Doppler Dispersion
in Outdoor Radio Channels, Proc. ACTS, 1997.
Delay Spread (DS) and Angle Spread (AS) for
Discrete Arrivals
Delay Spread

Angle Spread (approximate expression for small spread)

From mth ray from the jth mobile
( )
( )
( )
mobile) to direction from (measured station base at arrival of angle
delay time arrival
amplitude
= |
= t
=
j
m
j
m
j
m
A
DS
( j )
=
A
m
(j )
m
2
t
m
(j )
t
m
( j )
( )
2
A
m
( j )
2
m
where t
m
( j )
=
A
m
( j)
m
2
t
m
( j)
A
m
(j )
2
m
AS
( j)
=
A
m
( j )
m
2
|
m
( j)
|
m
( j )
( )
2
A
m
( j )
2
m
where |
m
( j )
=
A
m
(j )
m
2
|
m
( j )
A
m
(j )
2
m

Coordinate Invariant Method for
Computing AS

Coordinate invariant method:
Ray arrival angle |
n
measured from any x- axis
Define the vector : u
n
= (a
x
cos|
n
+ a
y
sin|
n
)

AS =
180
t
|
\
|
.
u
n
U
2
A
n
2
n
A
n
2
n
=
180
t
|
\
|
.
1 U
2
( )

where U = (u
n
)A
n
2
n
A
n
2
n

CDF of RMS Angle Spreads
- Measured at 1800 MHz for many subscriber locations in Sweden
- Signals received at base station by horizontal and vertical antennas for
vertical subscriber antenna
RMS angle spread is larger
in urban areas than in in
suburban areas.

Co- and cross polarization
have nearly the same RMS
angle spread.
M. Nilsson, et al., "Measurements of the
Spatio-Temporal Polarization Characteristics of
a Radio Channel at 1800 MHz, Proc. IEEE
Vehicular Technology Conference, 1999.
Ray Model for Street Level Mobiles
Rays arrive from all directions in the horizontal plane and up to 45 in the
vertical direction
Ray paths shown for propagation from base station to subscriber
Reverse directions of arrows for propagation from subscriber to base station
Base Station
A

L ~ 30 m
A

t ~ 100 ns
AL ~ 3 km
At ~ 10 s
Ray Model of Received Voltage and Power

Complex received voltage envelope at position x along the street
V(x)e
j(x)
= A
n
e
jkL
n
e
j|
n
n
where
A
n
= amplitude of the ray contribution
L
n
= path length of ray
|
n
= additional phase c hanges upon reflec tion,scattering
k = 2t / = 2tf /c
Rec eived power
P
R
(x) = V(x)e
j(x)
2
= A
n
A
m
m
e
j (|
n
|
m
)
e
jk(L
n
L
m
)
Ray Fields Are Locally Like Plane Waves
v
n

x
L
n
(x)
Narrow family
of rays
Phase Front

For narrow bundle of rays, A
n
and |
n
are approximately constant
over a distance of several wave lengths.
Over a small region of space the phase front is approximately a
plane perpendicular to the direction v
n
of the central ray.
Relation to Plane Wave Interference

Phase variation for small displacement s about a location x,
is approximately that of a plane wave
kL
n
(x + s) ~ kL
n 0
+ kv
n
( )
sa
x
( )
= kL
n0
+ ks v
n
( )
x
where v
n
( )
x
is the x component of the unit vec tor v
n
and
kL
n 0
is the phase of the central ray
Rec eived voltage is then
V(x)e
j(x)
= A
n
e
j(|
n
kL
n0
)
exp jks v
n
( )
x
| |
n
This expression is like that found for plane waves having

complex amplitude A
n
e
j (|
n
kL
n0
)
and v
n
( )
x
= cosu
n
Small Area Average Power

Rec eived power P
R
(x) = V(x)e
j(x)
2
= A
n
A
m
m
e
j (|
n
|
m
)
e
jk(L
n
L
m
)
The spatial average P
R
(x) of the power over x is

1
2W
P
R
(x + s)ds
W
W
}
=
A
n
A
m
m
e
j(|
n
|
m
)
e
jk(L
n0
L
m0
)
1
2W
exp jks v
n
v
m
( )
x
| |
ds
W
W
}
Provided 2W >1 k v
n
v
m
( )
x
for n = m,
1
2W
exp jks v
n
v
m
( )
x
| |
ds
W
W
}
~ 0.
Hence
1
2W
exp jks v
n
v
m
( )
x
| |
ds
W
W
}
~o
n,m
and P
R
(x) = A
n
2
n

Thus the spatial average power is equal to the sum of the ray powers.
Summary of the Ray Model of Propagation
Propagation to or from the mobile can take place along
multiple paths (rays)
Multiple rays give RMS delay spreads ~ 0.5 s at R = 1 km
Rays arrive at the mobile from all directions in the horizontal
plane, and up to 45
o
in the vertical plane
Rays at the base station arrive in a wedge of width ~ 10
o

Interference effects of multipath contributions over distances
~ 10 m are like those of plane waves
Effects Caused by Multipath
for CW Excitation
Fast fading at street level
Correlation at mobile and base station
Other effects
Doppler spread
Slow time fading
Cross polarization coupling
Multipath Arrivals Set Up a Standing Wave
Pattern in Space
Interference Effects of Multiple Rays

V(x) = A
n
e
jkL
n
e
j|
n
n
= A
n
A
m
e
j(|
n
|
m
)
e
jk(L
n
L
m
)
m

`
)
1
2
Scattered rays coming from all directions result in :
1. Spatial fading - as subscriber moves a distance Ax ~ ,
the phases k(L
n
- L
m
) change by ~ 2t
2. Doppler spread - a subsc riber moving with velocity u sees
an apparent frequency changes v =
1
2t
k
d
dt
L
n
=
u
cosu
3. Frequencyfading - the phase k(L
n
- L
m
) = e c
( )
(L
n
- L
m
)
changes with frequency
4. Slow time fading - moving scatterers change some L
n
' s
Received Signal as Omni Antenna Moves
Through Standing Wave Pattern
- Rapid Fluctuation of 20dB or more
- Separations between minima ~ 0.2 m
- Wavelength at 910 MHz is = 0.33 m
- Slow fluctuation of the small area average
M. Lecours, I.Y. Chouinard, G.Y. Delisle and J. Roy, Statistical Modeling of the Received Signal Envelope in a
Mobile Radio Channel, IEEE Trans. on Veh. Tech., Vol. VT-37, pp. 204-212, 1988.

Small area average
V (x) =
1
L
V(x + s)ds
L 2
L 2
}
Rayleigh and Rician
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
C
D
F

r
Median value
= 0.939
K=5
Rayleigh CDF
Rician CDF

Define the random
varriable
r = V(x) V(x)
For line - of - sight
(LOS) paths, r is
approximately Rician
For non- LOS
paths, r is
approximately Rayleigh
Complex Autocorrelation Function

Measures the degree to which the signal V(x)e
j(x)
received at one antenna
is predic ted by the signal V(x s)e
j(xs)
received at a second antenna
separated by a distance s .
Ergodic assumption: Statistical dependenc e over different embodiements
is same as averaging over many locations x.
For complex signals
C(s) =
1
2W
V(x)e
j(x)
V(x s)e
j(xs)
dx
W
W
}

`
)
1
2W
V(x)
| |
2
dx
W
W
}

`
)
where 2W >> is the correlation window,assumed to be centered at x = 0.
Autocorrelation Function for Ray Fields

If the voltage is the sum of ray fields V(x)e
j(x)
= A
n
e
jkL
n
(x)
e
j|
n
n
Over distances of 10- 20, we may approximate L

n
(x) ~ L
n 0
+ x(v
n
)
x
. Then

1
2W
V(x)e
j(x)
V(x s)e
j(xs)
dx
W
W
}
=
= A
n
A
m
m
e
j(|
n
|
m
)
e
jk(L
n0
L
m0
)
e
jks(v
m
)
x
1
2W
exp jkx v
n
v
m
( )
x
| |
dx
W
W
}

`
)
~ A
n
A
m
m
e
j(|
n
|
m
)
e
jk(L
n0
L
m0
)
e
jks(v
m
)
x
o
nm
{ }= A
n
2
n
e
jks(v
n
)
x
Similarly
1
2W
V(x)
| |
2
dx
W
W
}
~ A
n
2
n

so that C(s) = A
n
2
n
e
jks(v
n
)
x
A
n
2
n

C(s) Measured Street Level
Measurements made at
f = 821 MHz
= 0.365 m

Signal de-correlated
after s > /4
S-B. Rhee and G.I. ZYsman, "Results of Suburban Base Station Spatial Diversity Measurements
in the UHF Band," IEEE Trans. on Comm., vol. COM-22, pp. 1630-1636, 1974.
Sample Number
s (m)
0.26 1 2 4
Correlation at Elevated Base Station
F. Adachi, et al., "Cross correlation between the envelopes of 900 MHz signals
received at a mobile radio base station site," IEE Proc., vol. 133, Pt. F, pp. 506-
512, 1980.

Ray theory for small u
M
:
C(s) ~
sin ksu
M
sino
( )
ksu
M
sino
For o 0, C(s) 1
For o = 90
o
C(s) ~
sin ksu
M
( )
ksu
M
has first zero at
s = 2u
M
If u
M
= 5
o
= t 36 rad
then s = 6
Measured at 900 MHz in Liverpool, England
C
R
(s)
Summary of Fading at Both Ends of Link for an
Elevated Base Station
x
M

x
B
S

Elevated Base Station Mobile in Clutter
x
M

S
i
g
n
a
l

/2
x
B
S

S
i
g
n
a
l

/2
Measured Doppler Spread
K.I. Pedersen, et al., "Analysis of Time, Azimuth and Doppler Dispersion in Outdoor
Radio Channels, Proc. ACTS, 1997.
f = 1800 MHz
Frequency Fading Due to Multipath
(910 MHz in Toronto)
E.S. Sousa, et al, Delay Spread Measurements for the Digital Cellular
Channel in Toronto,IEEE Trans. on VT, VT-43, pp. 837-847, 1994.

Individual terms in the
expression for V(x) go
through 2t phase change
for frequency changes Af
satisfying

2tAf
c
L
i
L
j
( )
= 2t
solving for Af
Af =
c
L
i
L
j
( )
For differences in path
length L
i
L
j
( )
~1.2 km
Af = 0.25 MHz
Slow Time Fading Measured by
a Stationary Subscriber (900 MHz)
For a wave incident on a
moving scatterer at angle u
relative to the velocity u of
the scatterer, the scattered
wave will undergo 2t phase
change in time such that
uAt ~ .

At walking speed u = 1
m/s, and at 900 MHz,
At ~ 0.33 sec.
N.H. Shepherd, et al., "Special Issue on Radio
Propagation, IEEE Trans. On
Veh.Tech., vol. VT-37, pp. 45, 1988.
Local Scattering Produces
Cross-Polarization
E
V

E
V

E
V

E
V

E
V

E
H

E
H

Cross Polarization Coupling Measured at Base
Stations in Sweden
Measured ratios of the
sector average power
received in the horizontal
and vertical polarized
fields (H/V) at 1800 MHz.

The error limits represent
one standard deviation
Lotse, et al., "Base Station Polarization
Diversity Reception in Macrocellular
Systems at 1800 MHz", Proc. VTC 96,
pp. 1643 - 1646
Environment
Mobile
configuration
Horizontal-to
-vertical power
ratio (dB)
Roof-mounted -7 2
Portable, outdoors -4 2
Portable, inside van -3 2
Kungsholmen,
urban
Portable, indoors -1 4
Roof-mounted -8 2
Kista,
suburban
Roof-mounted -13 1
Veddesta,
suburban
Cross Correlation of Complex and Real Signals

Cross correlation of two complex functions with zero mean
C
R
=
E U(x)V
-
(x)
{ }
E U(x)
2
{ }
E V(x)
2
{ }
Cross correlation of two real functions with non - zero mean
C
R
=
E U(x) U(x)
| |
V(x) V(x)
| | { }
E U(x) U(x)
| |
2
{ }
E V(x) V(x)
| |
2
{ }
E - { } is the expectation value or average.
Fast Fading Patterns of Horizontal and Vertical
Polarization Are Uncorrelated
Cross correlations of
the signals received by
horizontally and
vertically polarized base
station antennas for a
roof mounted mobile
antenna. Integration
taken as the mobile
travels over a travel
distance 2W = 10.
Lempiainen, et al.,"Experimental Results of
Cross Polarization Discrimination and Signal
Correlation Values for a Polarization Diversity
Scheme", Proc. VTC 97, pp.1498-1502.
Summary of Multipath Effects
Multipath arrivals set up a standing wave pattern in space
that is perceived as fast fading by a moving mobile
Fast fading approximates Rayleigh statistics on Non-LOS
links
Interference patterns have correlation length of /4 at the
mobile, and 6 or greater at an elevated base station
Multipath causes frequency fading, Doppler spread and slow
time fading
The scattering processes that create multipath also cause
depolarization of the waves
Statistical Properties of the
Shadow Fading
Separating the shadow fading from fast fading and range
dependence
Statistical distribution of shadow fading
Correlation distance of shadow fading
Correlation of shadow fading for signals from different base
stations
R n A R U
LS
log 10 log 10 ) ( =
). ( ) ( R U R U
LS k

( ) ) ( ) ( R U R U P
LS k

How to Find Shadow Fading From
Drive Test Measurements
Drive tests conducted over many small areas of
length > 20 at different distances R from base station
Find U
k
(R) = 10log ( V(x)
2
) for each small area k = 1, 2, ...
Plot U
k
(R) versus log R and fit data with a least squares line
having dependence of the form

For each sector compute For the resulting
set of numbers form the distribution function

The distribution function is typically found to be Gaussian
Separating Shadow Fading from Range
Dependence
Least Squares Fit
Small Area Average
U
LS
= 10log P
T
+10log A n10log R
corresponds to power law
P = P
T
A/ R
n
Small area average power plotted versus logR
U
k
U
LS
CDF of Shadow Fading Measured Simultaneously
at Two Frequencies (955 MHz and 1845 MHz)

Straight line plots for distorted scale
indicate that U
k
U
LS
( )
o is Gaussian
Fading distributions of small
area averages normalized to
Standard deviation o for:
U
k
(955) 8.0dB
U
k
(1845) 8.1dB

Difference Mean o

U
k
(955) 10.5 3.3dB
- U
k
(1845)

Small area averages o
Morgensen, et al., Urban Area Radio Propagation Measurements at 955
and 1845 MHz for Small and Micro Cells, Proc. Of Globecom, 1991

CDF
U
k
U
LS
o

`
)

U
k
U
LS
( )
o
Interpreting the Shadow Fading Statistics
8 dB
3.3 dB
x

U
k
(955) U(955)
U
k
(1845) U(1845)

U
k
U
( )
dB
At each frequency the shadow loss fluctuates by o = 8 dB about its average
Shadow loss at the two frequencies are highly correlated, differing from each
other by only o = 3.3 dB (correlation coefficient C = 0.92)
Shadow loss has weak frequency dependence.
Multiple Distance Scales of Signal Variation
Travel distances ~ /2 -- Fast fading
Travel distances ~ 10 m ~ 20 -- Shadow fading
Entire cell out to ~ 20 km -- Range dependence A/R
n

Distance
S
i
g
n
a
l

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
d
B
)

/2
Small Area Average
U Average Overall
U U
k
Fading Shadow

U

p U U
( )
=
1
2to
SF
exp U U
( )
2
/2o
SF
2
| |

V(x)
2
=
4
t
V (x)
| |
2
Shadow Fading Statistics
For many small areas (sectors) k = 1, 2, ... at the same
distance R from the base station
Treat ( V(x)
2
) over each small area as a random variable
Define new random variable U
k
= 10log ( V(x)
2
)
Probability distribution of U
k
about its mean value
is typically found to be the Gaussian distribution

In cities o
SF
~ 8 -10 dB
Note: if V(x) is Rayleigh distributed, then
2o
SF

Autocorrelation of the Shadow Fading at
900MHz
Suburban Environment Urban Environment
250 m 5 m Decorrelation Distance
M.Gudmundson, Correlation Model for Shadow Fading in Mobile Radio Systems, Electronics Letts., vol. 27 pp. 2145-2146, 1991.
Cross Correlation of the Shadow Loss for Links
to Two Different Base Stations
C(u )
u
u
A. Mawira, Models for the Spatial
Correlation Functions of the (Log)-
Normal Component of the Variable-
ity of VHF/UHF Field Strength in
Urban Environment,
IEEE 0-7803-0841-7/92, 1992.
Propagation Model for Shadow Fading
As the subscriber moves along street, the received signal passes over
buildings of different height, or misses the last row of buildings
S
t
r
e
e
t

a
n
d

s
i
d
e

w
a
l
k
s

Subscriber
From base station

Full width of Fresnel
zone near one end of link:
2w
F
= 2 s
For 900 MHz at mid street
s = 20 m, =1 3 m
2w
F
= 5.2 m
about the width of a house.
Shadow loss is not sensitive
to frequency.
Summary of Shadow Fading Statistics
Shadow fading has lognormal distribution (power in dB has a
normal distribution)
Shadow fading has weak frequency dependence
Correlation length of the shadow fading is on the order of
building dimensions in cities and on street length in suburban
areas
There is correlation of the fading to different base stations
when they are located in the same direction from the mobile
Range Dependence of the Received Signal
High base station antenna measurements for macrocells
( for R out to 20 km )
Low base station antenna measurements for microcells
( for R out to 2 km )
Line of sight(LOS) paths
Obstructed paths
Range Dependence of Macrocells & Microcells
Early system using macrocells (R < 20 km)
Base station antennas well above buildings
Isotropic propagation with range variation A/R
n

Hexagonal tessellation of plane
Frequency reuse independent of antenna height
Modern systems using microcells (R < 2 km)
Base station antenna near (or below) rooftops
Anisotropic propagation- A, n depend on:
Direction of propagation relative to street grid
Base station antenna height, location relative to buildings
Cell shape is open issue
Scale of City Blocks Compare to Cell Size
0km 1 2 3 4
ELMHURST
FLUSHING
JACKSON HEIGHTS
CORONA
FLUSHING
MEADOWS
REGO PARK
HILLCREST
UTOPIA
EAST
ELMHURST
Measurements of Propagation Characteristics in
Different Cities for High Base Station Antennas
Field Strength and Its Variability in VHF and UHF
Land-Mobil Radio Service
Range Dependence Measured in Tokyo
Y. Okumura, E. Ohmori, T. Kawano and K. Fukuda, Field Strength and Its Variability in VHF and UHF Land-Mobile
Radio Service, Re. Elec. Com. Lab., vol. 16, pp. 825-873, 1968.
Range Dependence Measurements in
Philadelphia at 820 MHz
G.D. Ott and A. Plitkins, Urban Path-Loss Characteristics at 820 MHz, IEEE Trans. Veh. Tech., vol. VT-27, pp.
189-197, 1978.
Base station in a high rise
Building environment
Base station in a residential
environment
Range Dependence for Composite of Five Base
Station Sites in Philadelphia at 820 MHz
G.D. Ott and A. Plitkins, Urban Path-Loss Characteristics
at 820 MHz, IEEE Trans. Veh. Tech., vol. VT-27, pp. 189-
197, 1978.

Power law variation
P
dBm
= P
T
( )
dBm
+10log A n10log R
or
P = P
T
A R
n
( )
Path loss index
n = 3.68
Definition of Path Loss and Path Gain

PG Path Gain =
Power Received
Power Transmitted
( PG is always less than 1 )
PL Path Loss =
Power Transmitted
Power Received
=
1
PG
( PL is always greater than 1 )
When expressed in dB, PG
dB
=10log PG= L where
L 10log PL
If P = P
T
A/ R
n
, then PG
dB
=10log A 10nlog R and
L = 10log A+10nlog R
Hata-Okumura Model for Median Path Loss
Urban area:
L
50
= 69.55 + 26.16

log

f
c
- 13.82 log

h
b
- a(h
m
) + (44.9-6.55 log

h
b
) log R
where
f
c
frequency (MHz)
L
50
mean path loss (dB)
H
b
base station antenna height
a(h
m
) correction factor for mobile antenna height (dB)
R distance from base station (km)

The range of the parameters for which Hatas model is valid is
150 s f
c
s 1500 MHz
30 s h
b
s 200 m
1 s h
m
s 10 m
1 s R s 20 km

Hata-Okumura Model (cont.)
Urban area (cont.):
For a small or medium-sized city:
a(h
m
)=(1.1 log

f
c
- 0.7) h
m
- (1.56 log

f
c
- 0.8 ) dB

For a large city:
a(h
m
)=8.29(log

1.54 h
m
)
2
- 1.1 dB,

f
c
s 200 MHz
or
a(h
m
)=3.2(log

11.75 h
m
)
2
- 4.97 dB,

f
c
> 400 MHz

Suburban area:

Open Area:
L
50
= L
50
(urban) - 4.78 (log f
c
)
2
+18.33 (log f
c
) -40.94

L
50
= L
50
urban ( ) - 2 log
f
c
28
|
\
|
.

(

(
2
+ 5.4

`
)
dB
Range index of Hata-Okumura Model
n = ( 44.9 - 6.55 logh
b
) / 10
20 200
h
b
(m)

3.84
2.98
Measurement of Path Loss for
Low Base Station Antennas of Microcells
Drive Routes for Microcell Measurements
in San Francisco
LOS drive route
Staircase drive route
Zig-Zag drive route
Transverse paths - directly over buildings
Lateral paths - to side streets perpendicular to the LOS street
Mission District of San Francisco
Drive Routes In the Mission District
Received Signal on LOS Route in Mission
f = 1937 MHz, h
BS
= 3.2 m, h
m
= 1.6 m
Telesis Technology Laboratories, Experimental License Progress Report to the FCC, August, 1991.
Received Signal on Staircase Route in
the Sunset District vs. Distance Traveled
f = 1937 MHz, h
BS
= 8.7 m, h
m
= 1.6 m
Regression Fit to Received Signal Versus R
on Staircase Route in Sunset District
Received Signal on Zig-Zag Route in
the Sunset District vs. Distance Traveled
f = 1937 MHz, h
BS
= 8.7 m, h
m
= 1.6 m
Regression Fit to Received Signal Versus R on the
Transverse Portions of the Zig-Zag Route
Regression Fit to Received Signal Versus R
on the Lateral Portions of the Zig-Zag Route
Comparison of Regression Fits on
Different Paths in Sunset
H.H. Xia, et al., Microcellular Propagation Characteristics for Personal Communications in Urban and
Suburban Environments, IEEE Trans. Veh. Tech., vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 743-752, 1994.
Har-Xia-Bertoni Model for
Low Base Station Antennas
Expressions fit to regression lines for:

900 MHz and 1900 MHz
h
BS
= 3.2, 8.7 and 13.4 m
h
m
= 1.6 m

Separate expressions for:

LOS paths
Obscured paths in residential environment
Obscured paths in high rise environment

Har-Xia-Bertoni Model for LOS Paths
( )
( ) ( )
( ) | | ( )
( )
k b
b bk G bk k
bk k
k b b G k
bk k
m
m b
bk
k
G
R h
h R f R R L
R R
R h h f R L
R R
h
h h
R
R
f
log log 90 . 13 10 . 32
log log 90 . 13 34 . 25 log 70 . 45 log 10 . 32 38 . 48
) (
log log 73 . 5 80 . 15 log 09 . 0 log 40 . 39 14 . 81
) (
6 . 1
1000
4
+ +
+ + =
>
+ + =
<
= ~
=
=
segment out - Far
segment in - Near
m
km in distance
GHz in frequency

Har-Xia-Bertoni Model for Obscured Paths in
Residential Environments
( ) | | | | ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
( ) | | | | ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
k
G G k
k
G G k
k
G
R h h
h h f f R L
R h h
h h f f R L
h
R
f
log 1 log sgn 70 . 6 18 . 29
1 log sgn log 35 . 4 05 . 13 log 63 . 31 39 . 127
log 1 log sgn 35 . 4 06 . 40
1 log sgn log 58 . 4 74 . 13 log 88 . 38 31 . 138
A + A +
A + A + + =
A + A +
A + A + + =
= A
=
=
: Paths Lateral
: paths transverse and staircase Combined
m in buildings (below) above station base of height
km in distance
GHz in frequency
Har-Xia-Bertoni Model for Obscured Paths
in High Rise Environments

f
G
= frequency in GHz
R
k
= distance in km
h
b
= height of base station above ground in m
Combined staircase paths and transverse paths
L R
k
( )
=143.21+ 29.74log f
G
0.99logh
b
+ 47.23+ 3.72log h
b
( )
logR
k
Lateral paths
L R
k
( )
=135.41+12.49log f
G
4.99logh
b
+ 46.84 + 2.34 log h
b
( )
logR
k
Comparison of Hata and Har Models

For base station antenna heights outside measurement
limits of both models
For f =1 GHz
Hata urban area
L = 69.55 + 26.16log100013.82log20 + 44.9 6.55log20
( )
log R
k
=130.0 + 36.4log R
k
Har combined staircase and transverse (residential)
L =138.3113.74log(1+ 9) + 40.06 4.35log(1+ 9)
| |
log R
k
=124.6 + 35.7logR
k
Two models go into each other for middle height base station antennas
h
m
= 1.6 m
h
BS
= 20 m
Ah = 9 m
Summary of Range Dependence
Range dependence over large distances takes the form
(P
R
/P
Tr
)

= A/R
n
in watts or
10log (P
R
/P
Tr
)

= 10logA + 10nlogR in dB
The slope index n ranges between 3 and 4 for base station
antennas above the rooftops, and is the same for all cities
Simple formulas fit to measurements give the path gain or
path loss as a function of antenna height and frequency
Measurements made with high base station antennas match
continuously with measurements made with low antennas

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July, 2003 2003 by H.L.Bertoni 11

This expression is like that found for plane waves having

Over distances of 10- 20, we may approximate L

July, 2003 2003 by H.L.Bertoni 26

July, 2003 2003 by H.L.Bertoni 72

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