Chapter Outline
Terminology for Mechanical Properties The Tensile Test: Stress-Strain Diagram Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test True Stress and True Strain The Bend Test for Brittle Materials Hardness of Materials
Stress-Strain Test
specimen
machine
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Tensile Test
Terminology
Load - The force applied to a material during testing. Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for measuring change in length (strain). Engineering stress - The applied load, or force, divided by the original cross-sectional area of the material. Engineering strain - The amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load
bonds stretch return to initial
3. Unload
F
Elastic means reversible.
F
linear elastic
linear elastic
plastic
Typical stress-strain behavior for a metal showing elastic and plastic deformations, the proportional limit P and the yield strength y, as determined using the 0.002 strain offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
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Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a necked region. The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation for metals is accomplished by means of a process called slip, which involves the motion of dislocations. Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation results when stress is applied. A structure that has plastically deformed, or experienced a permanent change in shape, may not be capable of functioning as 14 intended.
Yield Strength, y
tensile stress,
engineering strain,
p = 0.002
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Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate tensile strength
UTS
3 Strain Hardening
necking
yield strength
Fracture 5
2
Plastic Region Elastic Region 1
E y 2 1
E
E
Elastic region slope =Youngs (elastic) modulus yield strength Plastic region ultimate tensile strength strain hardening fracture
4 Strain ( ) (DL/Lo)
or
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will no longer return to its original length.)
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Stress-strain behavior found for some steels with yield point phenomenon.
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T E N S I L E
P R O P E R T I E S
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Room T values
a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered
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Tensile Strength, TS
After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals increases to a maximum point (M) and then decreases to the eventual fracture point (F). All deformation up to the maximum stress is uniform throughout the tensile sample. However, at max stress, a small constriction or neck begins to form. Subsequent deformation will be confined to this neck area. Fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture.
Region between M and F: Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break. 24
In an undeformed thermoplastic polymer tensile sample, (a) the polymer chains are randomly oriented. (b) When a stress is applied, a neck develops as chains become aligned locally. The neck continues to grow until the chains in the entire gage length have aligned. (c) The strength of the polymer is increased
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Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers. 26
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, t:
Ft Ao
original area before loading
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VMSE
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm
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Example 1 SOLUTION
Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture:
% EL
l f lo lo
x100
% AR
Ao Af Ao
x100
Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture) or percent reduction in area. %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck. 31
Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics Higher toughness: metals
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Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering tensile stress,
smaller toughness (ceramics)
larg er toughness (metals, PMCs) smaller toughnessunreinforced polymers
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=E
n x/y
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Engineering Strain
Strain is dimensionless.
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Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative strains) in response to an imposed tensile stress.
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The relation between the true stresstrue strain diagram and engineering stress-engineering strain diagram. The curves are identical to the yield point.
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Composites /fibers
E(GPa)
200
10 0 80 60 40
Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin
CFRE(|| fibers )*
Aramid fibers only
Glass -soda
AFRE(|| fibers )*
Glass fibers only
G FRE(|| fibers )* Conc rete GFRE* G raphite CFRE * G FRE( fibers )* CFRE( fibers ) * AFRE( fibers) *
10 9 Pa
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10 8 6 4 2
1 0.8 0.6 0.4
Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.
Epoxy only
Wood(
grain)
0.2
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Strain Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.
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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.
The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with that of more ductile materials
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.
(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength of brittle materials, and (b) the deflection obtained by bending
Flexural Strength
Schematic for a 3point bending test. Able to measure the stress-strain behavior and flexural strength of brittle ceramics. Flexural strength (modulus of rupture or bend strength) is the stress at fracture.
See Table 7.2 for more values.
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L3 4bd 3
L3
12 R 4
circ. cross section
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MEASURING STRENGTH
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section
F
L/2 R L/2
d
rect.
Flexural strength:
fail fs m
Typ. values:
1.5Fmax L bd 2 rect.
Fmax L R 3
Material
E(GPa)
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--brittle response (aligned chain, cross linked & networked case) --plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
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Hardness of Materials
Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to penetration by a sharp object. Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials measured using loads >2 N. Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop (HK).
Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1 10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 N) forces.
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch). Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed where a small indenter is forced into the surface of a material. The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and corresponds to a hardness number. The softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation (and lower hardness number).
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Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.
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Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Hardness Testers
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Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches y. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
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