I C1 I C 2 I ref
VCC VBE R
Figure 7.3 The offset voltage can be reduced by cascading a complementary ( pnp) emitter follower.
Figure 7.7 Output characteristic for the current mirror of Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.8 Dynamic output resistance of the current mirror of Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.10 The Wilson current source, which has a high output resistance.
Figure 7.11 The Widlar current source, which is useful for small currents.
In typically cases, the MOSFET M1 operates in saturation region, as drain-to-gate voltage is zero.
Assuming the transistors are identical and that the output voltage is large enough so that M2 is in saturation as well. The current I O I 1 By using devices with different W/L ratios, circuits having output current equal to a predetermined constant times reference current can be designed. W /L I O 2 2 I1 W1 / L1
The input voltages vi1 and vi2 can be considered to be composed of a differential signal vid and a common mode signal vicm defined below: vid vi1 vi 2 vicm 1 / 2(vi1 vi 2 )
Differential output voltage is defined as
vod vo1 vo 2 , since vo1 VCC RC iC1 , v o 2 VCC RC iC 2 so vod RC (iC 2 iC1 )
Figure 7.22 Basic BJT differentiial amplifier.
Emitter degeneration
Sometimes it is advantageous to add emitter generation resistor REF to the circuit, as shown in the Figure. There resistors have the disadvantage of reducing the differential voltage gain of the circuit. However, two reasons for this is to increase input impedance and to reduce distortion due to the nonlinearity of the BJTs. The right figure shows the transfer characteristic of the differential amplifier (REF=40VT/IEE).
Figure 7.28 Voltage transfer characteristic with emitter degeneration resistors. REF = 40(VT/IEE).
Figure 7.29 Either a balanced or single-ended output is available\break from the differential amplifier.
Also note that the IEE current source is replaced by a resistance REB in the small-signal circuit, as practical current sources has a finite output impedance.
Figure 7.33 Small-signal equivalent circuit for the differential amplifier of Figure 7.27. (REB is the output impedance of the current source IEE.)
We can then consider only the left-hand side circuit as shown in the Figure. We need to analyze only this half circuit as the right half is the same except different polarity.
Figure 7.35 Small-signal equivalent circuit with a pure common-mode input signal.
Figure 7.40 Differential amplifier of Example7.4 using the Wilson current source.
The transfer characteristics for drain current Id1 and Id2 are shown in the figure.
The circuit can be analyzed for differential and common-mode input signal in almost the same way as the emitter-coupled differential pair discussed before.
Refer to results in Table 7.3 in page 462.
Figure 7.46 Small-signal equivalent circuit for the source-coupled amplifier of Figure 7.43. (Note: RSB is the output resistance of the bias current source I.)
Figure 7.50 Small-signal equivalent circuit for the output stage consisting of M7 and M2.
Figure 7.50 Small-signal equivalent circuit for the output stage consisting of M7 and M2.
Figure 7.53 Open-loop gain versus frequency for the CMOS op amp.
Figure 7.56 REB represents the output impedance of current sink Q8. Ri = r 3 r 4 is the differential input impedance of the second stage.