Circulatory System

The Blood vascular system or cardiovascular system consists of the following structures:
Heart Arteries Capillaries Veins

Heart
Walls of the four heart chambers consists of 3 major layers:
Myocardium Endocardium Epicardium

Endocardium
Inner layer endothelium and supporting connective tissue Middle layer myoelastic layer of smooth muscle fibers and connective tissue Deep layer subendocardial layer that merges with the myocardium Modified cardiac muscle fibers are also located here
makes up the impulse conducting system of the heart

Impulse conducting system of the heart

Generates and propagates waves of depolarization spread through the myocardium stimulated rhythmic contractions

 consists of 2 nodes of specialized myocardial tissue in the right atrium: -sinoatrial (SA) node / Pacemaker -atrioventricular (AV) node

Purkinje fibers
mingle distally with contractile fibers of both ventricles and trigger waves of contraction through both ventricles simultaneously found in the apex of the heart

Myocardium
Thickest layer Consists mainly of cardiac muscle with its fibers arranged spirally around each heart chamber Myocardiaum is thicker in the walls of ventricles (particularly left)
Strong force is required to pump blood through the systemic and pulmonary circulations

Epicardium
Simple squamous mesothelium Supported by a layer of loose connective tissue that contains blood vessels and nerves Corresponds to the visceral layer of the pericardium (Membrane surrounding the heart) Parietal layer of pericardium (outer layer)

 During heart movements:

Adipose tissue in the epicardium cushion the underlying structures of the heart Friction within the pericardium is prevented by lubricant fluid produced by both layers os serous mesothelial cells

Cardiac skeleton
Dense Fibrous connective tissue Froms part of the
Interventricular speta Surrounds all valves of the heart Extends to the valve cusps and the chordae tendinae

Cardiac skeleton
Performs the following functions:
Anchoring and supporting heart valves Providing firm points of insertion for cardiac muscle Helping coordinate the heartbeat by acting as electrical insulation between atria and ventricles

INTRODUCTION Arteries are a series of efferent vessels that become smaller as they branch.

Their function is to carry blood, with its nutrients and oxygen, to tissues.

STRUCTURAL PLAN OF BLOOD VESSELS

 Tunic intima- has one layer of endothelial cells supported by a thin subendothelial layer of loose connective tissue with occasional smooth muscle cell. In arteries, the intima is separated from the media by an internal elastic lamina, the most external component of the intima. This lamina, composed of elastin, has holes (fenestrae) that allow the diffusion of substances to nourish cells deep in the vessel wall. As a result, loss of blood pressure and contraction of the vessel at death, the tunica intima of arteries may have a slightly appearance in tissue sections .

 Tunica Media- the middle layer, consists chiefly of concentric layers of helically arranged smooth muscle cells. Interposed among the smooth muscle cells are variable amounts of elastic fibers and lamellae, reticular fibers of collagen type III, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins, all of which is produced by the cells. In arteries, the media has a thinner external elastic lamina which separates it from the tunica adventitia.

 The tunica advenititia or tunica externa- consists principally of type I collagen and elastic fibers. This adventitial layers is gradually continuous with the stromal connective tissue of the organ trough which blood vessels runs.

Capillarie s

The smallest vessels, are the sites of 02, CO2, nutrient, and waste product exchange between blood and tissues. Together with the smallest arterial and venous branches carrying blood to and from them, capillaries in almost every organ form a complex network of thin, anastomosing tubules called microvasculature or microvascular bed.

Capillaries
Permit and regulate metabolic exchange between blood and surround tissues. These smallest blood vessels always function in groups called capillary beds, whose size and overall shape conforms to that of the structure supplied.

Capillaries
The richness of the capillary network is related to the metabolic activity of the tissues.
Tissues with high metabolic rates have an abundant capillary network
kidney, liver, and cardiac and skeletal muscle;

the opposite is true of tissues with low metabolic rates, such as

the smooth muscle and dense connective tissue.

Capillary beds
Are supplied preferentially by one or more terminal arteriole branches called metarterioles, which are continuous with thoroughfare channels connected with the postcapillary venules. True capillaries branch from the metarterioles, which are encircled by scattered smooth muscle cells, and converge into the thoroughfare channels, which lack muscle.

Capillary beds
At the beginning of each true capillary, muscle fibers act as precapillary sphincters that contract or relax to control the entry of blood. These sphincters contract and relax cyclically, with 5 to 10 cycles per minute, causing blood to pass through capillaries in a pulsatile manner.

Capillary beds
When the sphincters are closed, blood flows directly from the metarterioles and thoroughfare channels into postcapillary venules.

Capillaries
Are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells rolled up as a tube. the average diameter of capillaries varies from 4 to 10 micrometers, which allows transit of blood cells only one at a time, and their individual length is usually not more than 50 micrometers.

Capillaries
These minute vessels make up over 90% of the bodys vasculature, with a total length of more than 100,000 km and a total surface area of approximately 5000 m2. Because of the cyclical opening and closing of the sphincters, most capillaries are essentially empty at any given time, with only about 5% (~30mL in an adult) of the total blood volume moving through these structures. Their thin walls, extensive surface area, and slow, pulsatile blood flow optimize capillaries for the exchange of water and solutes between blood and tissues

Capillaries
Capillary cells have many features specialized for molecular transfer by mechanisms ranging from simple diffusion to transcytosis. The basal lamina helps determine which macromolecules interact with the endothelial cells. The cytoplasm contains mitochondria and most other organelles, along with a typically large population of membrane vesicles.

Capillaries
Along with the basal lamina, junctional complexes between the cells maintain the tubular structure, with variable numbers of tight junctions having an important role in capillary permeability.

Three histological types of Capillaries

a. Continuous Capillaries
Have many tight, well-developed occluding junctions between slightly overlapping endothelial cells, which provide for continuity along the endothelium and well-regulated metabolic exchange across the cells. The most common type of capillary; found in muscle, connective tissues, lungs, exocrine glands, and nervous tissue.

b. Fenestrated Capillaries
Have sieve-like structure that allows more extensive molecular exchange across the endothelium. The endothelial cells are penetrated by numerous small circular openings or fenestrations. Some fenestrations are covered by very thin diaphragms of proteoglycans; others may represent membrane invaginations during transcytosis that temporarily involve both sides of the very thin cells.

b. Fenestrated Capillaries
The basal lamina is continuous and covers the fenestrations. Fenestrated capillaries are found in organs with rapid interchange of substances between tissues and the blood, such as the kidneys, intestine, choroid plexus, and endocrine glands.

c. Discontinuous capillaries
Commonly called sinusoids Permit maximal exchange of macromolecules as well as allow easier movement of cells between tissues and blood. Individual endothelial cells here have large perforations without diaphragms; collectively they form a discontinuous layer, with wide, irregular spaces between the cells.

c. Discontinuous capillaries
Also differ from other capillaries by having highly discontinuous basal laminae and much larger diameters which slows blood flow. Sinusoidal capillaries are found in the liver, spleen, some endocrine organs, and bone marrow.

Pericytes
At various locations along continuous capillaries and postcapillary venules are mesenchymal cells called pericytes, with long cytoplasmic processes partly surrounding the endothelial layer. Produce their own basal lamina, which may fuse with that of the endothelial cells.

 Well-developed networks of myosin, actin, and tropomyosin in pericytes indicate these cells primary contractile function to facilitate flow of blood cells. After tissue injuries, pericytes proliferate and differentiate to form smooth muscle and other cells in new vessels as the microvasculature is reestablished.

Medical Application
The hyperglycemia or excessive blood sugar that occurs with diabetes commonly leads to diabetic microangiopathy, a diffuse thickening of capillary basal laminae and concomitant decrease in metabolic exchange at these vessels, particularly in the kidneys, retina, skeletal muscle, and skin.

Type of artery

Outer Diameter 10-4 micrometers

Intima

Media

Adventitia

Roles in Circulatory System Exchange metabolites by diffusion to and from cells

Capillaries

Endothelium only

Perictyes only

None

TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

ARTERIES
Large (elastic) artery Medium (muscular) artery Small artery Arteriole Capillary

VEINS
Postcapillary venule Muscular venule Small vein Medium vein Large vein

STRUCTURAL PLAN OF BLOOD VESSELS

They are usually composed of the following layers or tunics (L. tunica, coat) TUNICA INTIMA innermost layer of the vessel TUNICA MEDIA middle layer TUNICA ADVENTITIA outermost connective tissue layer

 Consists of 3 components
Single layer of squamous epithelial cells endothelium Basal lamina of the endothelium composed of collagen, proteoglycans and glycoproteins Subendothelial layer loose connective tissue; smooth muscles cells are occasionally found

Arteries: intima is separated from media by internal elastic lamina (most external component)

 Consists primarily of circumferentially arranged layer of smooth muscle cells Interposed among are:
Elastic fibers and lamella Reticular fibers of collagen type II Proteoglycans Glycoproteins

Arteries: thinner external elastic lamina

consists principally of type I collagen and elastic fibers gradually continuous with the stromal connective tissue of the organ through which the blood vessel runs.

TUNICS OF VEINS
not as distinct or well defined as the tunics of arteries
Venules - further subclassified as postcapillary and muscular venules. They receive blood from capillaries and have a diameter as small as 0.1 mm. Medium veins They usually are accompanied by arteries and have a diameter of as much as 10 mm.

Small veins are less then 1 mm in diameter and are continuous with muscular venules.

Large veins usually have a diameter greater than 10 mm - superior and inferior

Blood entering veins is under

very low pressure

and moves toward the heart by contraction

of the tunica media and external compressions from surrounding muscles and other organs.

Valves project from the tunica intima to prevent back-flow of blood.

The intima usually has a thin subendothelial layer and the media consists of small bundles of smooth muscle cells intermixed with reticular fibers and a delicate network of elastic fibers. The collagenous adventitial layer is well-developed.

VEINS AND VALVES

Most veins have valves, but these are most prominent in large veins.
Valves consist of paired semilunar folds of the tunica intima projecting across part of the lumen. They are rich in elastic fibers and are lined on both sides by endothelium. The valves, which are especially numerous in veins of the legs, help keep the flow of venous blood directed toward the heart.

VENULES AND SMALL VEINS

Postcapillary venules collect blood from the capillary network and are characterized by the presence of pericytes. Postcapillary venules possess an endothelial lining with its basal lamina and pericytes. The endothelium of postcapillary venules is the principal site of action of vasoactive agents such as histamine and serotonin. No true tunica media have a diameter as small as 0.1 mm.

VENULES AND SMALL VEINS

Muscular venules are distinguished from postcapillary venules by the presence of a tunica media. Muscular venules - located distal to the postcapillary venules in the returning venous network - have a diameter of as much as 0.1 mm. - have one or two layers of smooth muscle that constitute a tunica media.

- have a thin tunica adventitia.

- Usually, pericytes are not found in muscular venules.

SMALL VEIN VS SMALL MUSCULAR ARTERY

SMALL VEIN WITH VALVE

MEDIUM VEINS
- diameter of as much as 10 mm. - Most deep veins that accompany arteries are in this category (e.g., radial vein, tibial vein, popliteal vein). - Valves are a characteristic feature of these vessels and are most numerous in the inferior portion of the body, particularly the lower limbs, to prevent retrograde movement of blood because of gravity.

DEEP VENOUS THROMBOSIS

Often deep veins of lower limbs are the site of thrombus (blood clot) formation

DVT is associated with immobilization of the lower limbs due to prolonged bed rest (after surgery or hospitalization), orthopedic casts, or restricted movement during long-haul flights.
DVT can be a life-threatening condition because of the potential for development of pulmonary embolism (blockage of the pulmonary arteries) by a dislodged blood clot originating from deep veins.

TUNICS OF MEDIUM VEINS

tunica intima consists of an endothelium with its
basal lamina, a thin subendothelial layer with occasional smooth muscle cells scattered in the connective tissue elements, and, in some cases, a thin internal elastic membrane.

tunica media of medium-sized veins is much

thinner than the same layer in medium-sized arteries. It contains several layers of circularly arranged smooth muscle cells with interspersed collagen and elastic fibers. In addition, longitudinally arranged smooth muscle cells may be present just beneath the tunica adventitia.

MEDIUM VEIN VS MUSCULAR ARTERY

LARGE VEINS
In large veins, the tunica media is relatively thin, and the tunica adventitia is relatively thick.

Diameter = greater than 10 mm

TUNICS OF LARGE VEINS

tunica intima - consists of an endothelial lining with its basal
lamina, a small amount of subendothelial connective tissue, and some smooth muscle cells. Often the boundary between the tunica intima and tunica media is not clear, and it is not always easy to decide whether the smooth muscle cells close to the intimal endothelium belong to the tunica intima or to the tunica media.

tunica media is relatively thin and contains circumferentially

arranged smooth muscle cells, collagen fibers, and some fibroblasts. In some animals, but not in humans, cardiac muscle cells extend into the tunica media of the both superior and inferior vena cava and the pulmonary veins, near their junction with the heart.

tunica adventitia of large veins (e.g., the subclavian veins,

portal vein, and the venae cavae) is the thickest layer of the vessel wall. Along with the usual collagen andelastic fibers and fibroblasts, the tunica adventitia also contains longitudinally disposed smooth muscle cells

LARGE VEINS
The big venous trunks, paired with elastic arteries close to the heart

- have a well-developed tunica intima

- the tunica media is relatively thin, with few layers of smooth muscle and abundant connective tissue. - adventitial layer is thick in large veins and frequently contains longitudinal bundles of smooth muscle.

- Both the media and adventitia contain elastic fibers, but elastic lamina like those of arteries are not present.

LARGE VEIN WITH VALVE