DR SHAHAB SHAIKH

Visible light is just a part of the electromagnetic spectrum

The Eye and Vision

Visual organ the eye
70% of all sensory receptors are in the eyes 40% of the cerebral cortex is involved in processing

visual information

Medial View of the Eye

Figure 16.7a

The Fibrous Tunic

Most external layer of the eyeball Composed of two regions of connective tissue

Sclera posterior five-sixths of the tunic

White, opaque region Provides shape and an anchor for eye muscles

Cornea anterior one-sixth of the fibrous tunic Limbus junction between sclera and cornea Scleral venous sinus allows aqueous humor to drain

The Vascular Tunic

The middle coat of the eyeball
Composed of choroid, ciliary body, and iris Choroid vascular, darkly pigmented membrane Forms posterior five-sixths of the vascular tunic Brown color from melanocytes Prevents scattering of light rays within the eye Choroid corresponds to the arachnoid and pia maters

Posterior View of the Anterior Half of the Eye

Figure 16.9a

The Vascular Tunic

Ciliary body thickened ring of tissue encircles the

lens Composed of ciliary muscle

Ciliary processes posterior surface of the ciliary body Ciliary zonule (suspensory ligament)

Attached around entire circumference of the lens

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The Vascular Tunic

Figure 16.8

The Iris
Visible colored part of the eye
Attached to the ciliary body Composed of smooth muscle

Pupil the round, central opening Sphincter pupillae muscle (constrictor or circular) Dilator pupillae muscle (dilator or radial)

Act to vary the size of the pupil

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Pupillary dilation and constriction

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The Sensory Tunic (Retina)

Retina the deepest tunic
Composed of two layers Pigmented layer single layer of melanocytes Neural layer sheet of nervous tissue

Contains three main types of neurons

Photoreceptor cells Bipolar cells Ganglion cells

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Accessory Structures of the Eye

Lacrimal apparatus

keeps the surface of the eye moist

Lacrimal gland

produces lacrimal fluid Lacrimal sac fluid empties into nasal cavity

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Figure 16.5b

Microscopic Anatomy of the Retina

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Figure 16.10a

Photoreceptors
Two main types Rod cells more sensitive to light

Allow vision in dim light Enable high-acuity, color vision

Cone cells operate best in bright light

Considered neurons

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Photoreceptors

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Figure 16.11

Regional Specializations of the Retina

Macula lutea contains mostly cones
Fovea centralis contains only cones Region of highest visual acuity Optic disc blind spot

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Medial View of the Eye

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Figure 16.7a

The Pupillary Muscles

Blood Supply of the Retina

Retina receives blood

from two sources

Outer third of the

retina supplied by capillaries in the choroid Inner two-thirds of the retina supplied by central artery and vein of the retina

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Figure 16.10c

Internal Chambers and Fluids

The lens and ciliary zonules divide the eye
Posterior segment (cavity) Filled with vitreous humor

Clear, jelly-like substance Transmits light Supports the posterior surface of the lens Helps maintain intraocular pressure

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Internal Chambers and Fluids

Anterior segment Divided into anterior and posterior chambers

Anterior chamber between the cornea and iris Posterior chamber between the iris and lens Filled with aqueous humor

Renewed continuously Formed as a blood filtrate Supplies nutrients to the lens and cornea

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Internal Chambers and Fluids

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Figure 16.8

The Lens
A thick, transparent, biconvex disc Held in place by its ciliary zonule

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Lens, Zonule Fibers, & Ciliary Muscles

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Fig. 10.33

Lens Epithelium
capsule epithelium

fibers

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The Eye as an Optical Device

Structures in the eye bend light rays
Light rays converge on the retina at a single focal point Light bending structures (refractory media) The lens, cornea, and humors Accommodation curvature of the lens is adjustable Allows for focusing on nearby objects

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REFRACTION

FACTORS AFFECTING FOCAL LENGTH

IMAGE FORMATION BY BICONVEX LENS

Image Formation

Accommodation

Figure 17.10

Visual Abnormalities

RETINA The Organization of the Retina

RETINA

SEM OF MACULA & FOVEA

Retina
Consists of single-cell-

thick pigmented epithelium, layers of other neurons, and photoreceptor neurons (rods and cones).
Neural layers are forward

extension of the brain. Neural layers face outward, toward the incoming light.

Light must pass through several neural layers before striking the rods and cones.

Cones under electron microscope

Retina

(continued)

Rods and cones synapse with other neurons.

Each rod and cone consists of inner and outer segments.

Outer segment contains hundreds of flattened discs with photopigment molecules. New discs are added and retinal pigment epithelium removes old tip regions.

Outer layers of neurons that contribute axons to optic nerve

called ganglion cells.

Neurons receive synaptic input from bipolar cells, which receive

input from rods and cones. Horizontal cells synapse with photoreceptors and bipolar cells. Amacrine cells synapse with several ganglion cells.

APs conducted outward in the retina.

Effect of Light on Rods

Rods and cones are

activated when light produces chemical change in rhodopsin.

Bleaching reaction:

Rhodopsin dissociates into retinene (rentinaldehyde) and opsin.

11-cis retinene dissociates from opsin when converted to all-trans form.

Initiates changes in ionic permeability to produce APs in ganglionic cells.

Rods and Cones

WALDS VISUAL CYCLE

Photoreception

Animation: Photoreception (see tutorial)

Photoreception

Bleaching and Regeneration of Visual Pigments

Visual Acuity and Sensitivity

Each eye oriented so that

image falls within fovea centralis.

Fovea only contain cones.

Degree of convergence of cones is 1:1.

Peripheral regions contain

both rods and cones.

Degree of convergence of rods is much lower.

Visual acuity greatest and

sensitivity lowest when light falls on fovea.

Neural Processing of Visual Information

Receptive field:
Part of visual field that affects activity of particular

ganglion cell.

On-center fields:
Responses produced by light in the center of visual

fields.

Off-center fields:
Responses inhibited by light in the center, and

stimulated by light in the surround.

Fig. 10.35

Fig. 10.36

Fig. 10.38

Fig. 10.39

Fig. 10.41

Fig. 10.42

NEURAL FUNCTION OF RETINA

RODS AND CONES HORIZONTAL CELLS BIPOLAR CELLS AMACRINE CELLS GANGLION CELLS

Visual Pathways
Most visual information travels to the cerebral cortex
Responsible for conscious seeing Other pathways travel to nuclei in the midbrain and

diencephalon

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Visual Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex

Pathway begins at the retina Light activates photoreceptors Photoreceptors signal bipolar cells Bipolar cells signal ganglion cells Axons of ganglion cells exit eye as the optic nerve Fibers from the Nasal halves of Retina cross to opp side in the Optic Chiasma while the fibers from the temporal side of retina do not cross. Thus together Nasal side fibers of opposite side and Temporal side fibers of same side continue as Optic Tract

Visual Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex

Optic tracts terminates in Lateral geniculate nucleus

(LGB) of the thalamus. From the LGB Fibers of the optic radiation reach the primary visual cortex This nucleus is composed of six nuclear layers. Layers II, III, and V receive signals from the Temporal half of the ipsilateral retina, whereas layers I, IV, and VI receive signals from the Nasal half of the retina of the opposite eye

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The dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus is divided in another way: (1) Layers I and II are called Magnocellular layers because they contain large neurons.
(1)

These receive their input almost entirely from the large type Y retinal ganglion cells. provides a rapidly conducting pathway to the visual cortex. However, this system transmits only black-and-white information. Also, its pointto-point transmission is poor

(2) Layers III through VI are called Parvocellular layers

(1)

because they contain small to medium-sized neurons.

These neurons receive their input almost entirely from the type X retinal ganglion cells that transmit color and convey accurate point-to-point spatial information

Visual Pathways

Visual Pathways to Other Parts of the Brain

Some axons from the optic tracts Branch to midbrain

Superior colliculi Pretectal nuclei

Other branches from the optic tracts Branch to the suprachiasmatic nucleus

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PRIMARY COLORS

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Coding of Visual Information in the Retina

Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding Peak wavelength sensitivities of the three cones: Blue cone: Short(420 nm) Green cone: Medium(530 nm) Red Cone: Long(560 nm)

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Light & Dark Adaptation