Principles of Evolution and The Origins of Life

What was life like a long time ago How did we come into being?

Evolutionary History
Darwin did not come up with his theories all by himself. Malthus and others set up a foundation that would allow Darwin to think as he did. Others came up with the same theory Independently

The species problem

Why do populations of organisms change over time? If an organism is present in a particular area, it must be perfect for that area, so why then do exotic species pose a threat?

 Evolution: Change in lines of descent over time. Microevolution: series of changes that give rise to a new species (population). Macroevolution: major large scale patterns of change in groups of living organisms. Population: a group of individuals of the same species

Evolution vocabulary words

 Populations evolve not individuals. Populations exhibit great variability. When this variability changes over time is when we get new species. (micro evolution) Sources of variation within a population
mutations create new alleles crossing over during meiosis leads to new combinations of alleles independent assortment mixes alleles

Microevolution Processes
Mutation Natural selection Genetic Drift Gene flow Reproductive isolation

Mutation
Any heritable change in DNA sequence. Three types
lethal mutation neutral mutation beneficial

The vast majority of mutations are probably invisible or harmful.

Natural selection
Is the major process to produce populations that have different characteristics. First described by Darwin
if a trait is more adaptive it improves the chances of producing offspring (adaptation) it gives more of its alleles to the following generation (greater fitness)

Genetic drift
Random fluctuation of allele frequencies over time Works better in small populations Influenced by who starts a population
Bottleneck effect Founder effect

Gene Flow
Genes flow with the individuals of a population Physical flow tends to minimize genetic variation, like shuffling the deck.

Reproductive Isolation and speciation

Species: are populations of individuals that can interbreed. When separated by 10,000 or more generations many species can no longer interbreed. Types of isolation
geographic, behavioral, biochemical

Rates of evolutionary change

Gradualism: Evolution is a slow and methodical process Punctuated equilibrium: Evolution occurs in rapid bursts followed by long periods without change

Evidence for Microevolution

Biogeography Fossil record Comparative morphology Comparative biochemistry

Life Evolved on the Earth about 3.8 Billion Years Ago

Small organic molecules joined to form larger molecules Genetic material originated Organic molecules aggregated into droplets
Figure 22.4 (p. 514)

A phylogenetic tree

The process of fossilizaiton

Homologous structures

Human evolution
We are a class of organisms called Mammals

Mammals are vertebrates

Nerve cord Vertebrae (backbone) Brain

Mammals
Hair Long infancy (comparatively) Flexibility in responses due to large brain Produce milk (mammary glands)

Primates
Monkeys & Apes Physically and Biochemical similar

Hominoids:
Chimps and Man
Common ancestor about 5 million years ago

Evolutionary Trends from primate to human

Upright walking Precision and Power grip Daytime color vision w/ depth perception More generalized teeth for omnivore diet Increase in brain size allows for new and abstract behavior

Origins of primates
60 mya- nighttime omnivores 40mya Daytime larger brains 35mya ancestor to monkeys and apes and humans

Humans
Roughly 200,000 years old (from H. erectus) 15,000 years in the Americas 35,000 years in Asia decline of Neanderthal
2 modes
Multiregional hypothesis (humans from independent evolution in europe, asia, africa and Australia Out of Africa, one ancestor

We are evolving now

Our evolution is cultural not morphological

Topic Ecosystems
Biosphere: the portion of the earth that supports life: land, air water

Ecology:
The study of the interactions of organisms with each other and the environment.

More words:
Habitat: The place an organism lives Community: collections of populations in a habitat. Niche: physical and biological conditions under which a species can live (an organisms role) specialist: has very narrow growth conditions generalist: will grow under a wide range of conditions

Relationships in ecology

Ecosystem
One or more communities interacting with one another and with the physical environment.

Ecosystems will change over time in a process called:

Primary succession: life moves onto an area that previously had no life. Like on a new volcanic island. Secondary succession: When man, fire, floods disturb a community, a progression of different forms of life inhabit the area for a while

A human example of succession

The ecosystem organization

Energy from the sun passes through the ecosystem

The two major classes of life

Autotrophs: (producers)
capture sunlight energy and incorporate it into organic compounds (sugar, Fa, Na, Aa)

Heterotrophs:
feed on the tissue products of autotrophs Humans and all omnivores and carnivores

The major types of consumers

Herbivores eat plants Carnivores eat animals Parasites reside in or on living hosts and extract energy Omnivores eat a variety of organisms Detritivores: feed on partially decomposed organic mater Decomposers: reduce waste and dead bodies to their chemical components

Players in the Ecosystem

A classic food chain

Well things are more like a food web.

Recycling
Ecosystems require energy and nutrients they lose energy and give off nutrients

Recycling of components again

Unlike physical matter energy cannot be recycled
energy that is not passed on to the next tropic level is lost in the form of heat.

Trophic levels: A hierarchy of energy transfers

each level feeds on the lower level.

Trophic Levels

Energy lost as heat

Energy lost as heat

Energy lost as heat

Pyramids of energy
When one group outgrows the supporting group the result is

Carniv.

Carniv.

herbivores
autotrophs

herbivores
autotrophs

Biological magnification

Biogeochemical cycles
The Hydrologic cycle: How water is moved. The carbon cycle
Important in global warming and the greenhouse effect

The Nitrogen cycle

An air intermediate moves these atoms across the planet

The Phosphorus cycle

Intense competition of plants and bacteria

Impacts of Human Populations

Increasing #s. The worlds population is still growing.
Birth control programs have not been successful

Population dynamics
Population density- individuals per unit area distribution patterns clumped, random, uniform

SF Bay area

Age structure of a population

Preproductive:
before sexual maturity

Reproductive:
15-44 age when producing young

Post reproductive:
after sexual activity

Population growth
(births + immunization) - (death + emigration)
Rate of increase - zero is a balance between births and deaths

Growth of a population increases over time

Population

Time

Biotic Potential
Maximum growth rate of a population given low death rates Depends on
# of offspring per individual time until sexual maturity length of sexual maturity

Actual rates of population increase

Are influenced by environmental conditions Usually biotic potential is not reached because of rate limiting conditions Limits include
disease space pollution predation

Carrying capacity
The number of individuals that a given area can support Mankind has been very effective in increasing the carrying capacity of the earth.

Human Population growth

Preindustrial:
Birthrates & deathrates are high population is level over time

Transitional
birth rates are high death rates are low population increases

Postindustrial
birth rates drop & death rates are low population levels off

Things that will affect our future

Effects of air pollution

Industrial Grey smog Brown automotive smog Acid deposition Damage to ozone

Water scarcity and pollution

1/3 of food is from irrigated fields
irrigation causes salt buildup increase in human population causes an increase in waste, insecticides, chemicals and pollution

Coping with solid waste

Loosing places to store waste (recycle) Desertification is caused by overusing marginal lands

We often times put limits on ourselves

Sex hormones and sex hormone mimics

Testosterone Estrogen (Estradiol)

Diethylstilbestrol

DDT

Our Future Depends on the Decisions We Make Today