Chapter 13 The Special Senses

Cochlea
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Special Senses
Have highly localized receptors that provide specific information about the environment Five special senses
Smell
Interaction of chemicals with sensory receptors

Taste
Interaction of chemicals with sensory receptors

Sight
Interaction of light with sensory receptors

Hearing
Interaction of mechanical stimulation with sensory receptors

Balance
Interaction of mechanical stimulation with sensory receptors

Olfaction
Sense of Smell Response to airborne molecules, called odorants, entering the nasal cavity At least 7 (perhaps 50) primary odors exist
Camphoraceous (e.g., moth balls) Musky Floral Pepperminty Ethereal (e.g., fresh pears) Pungent Putrid

Olfactory neurons have very low thresholds and accommodate rapidly

Olfactory Epithelium and Bulb

Olfactory neurons in the olfactory epithelium are bipolar neurons
Distal ends have olfactory hairs

Olfactory hairs have receptors that respond to dissolved substances

Approximately 1000 different odorant receptors

Receptors activate G proteins, which results in ion channels opening and depolarization
Fig. 13.1

Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

Axons from the olfactory neurons extend as olfactory nerves to the olfactory bulb, where they synapse with interneurons Axons from interneurons form the olfactory tracts, which connect to the olfactory cortex Olfactory bulbs and cortex accommodate to odors

Taste
Sensory structures that detect taste stimuli are taste buds Most taste buds are located in the epithelium of papillae Taste buds are found on the
Tongue Palate Lips Throat

There are four types of papillae

Three contain taste buds The fourth and most numerous has no taste buds, but gives the tongue its roughness
Fig. 13.2

Histology of Taste Buds

Taste buds consist of
Taste cells (~50)
Have taste hairs that extend into taste pores

Basilar cells Supporting cells

Fig. 13.2

Function of Taste
Receptors on the hairs detect dissolved substances Five basic types of taste exist:
Salty
Sodium ions

Sour
Acids

Sweet
Sugars, some other carbohydrates, and some proteins

Bitter
Alkaloids (bases)

Umami
Elicited by the amino acid glutamate and related compounds

Function of Taste
All taste buds can sense the five primary tastes, but tend to be most sensitive to one
Sensitivity to bitter substances is the highest (Poisons)

Taste is strongly influenced by olfactory sensations

Nasal congestion can dampen the taste sensation

Tongue can detect other stimuli besides taste

Temperature Texture

Neuronal Pathways for Taste

The facial nerve carries taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue The glossopharyngeal nerve carries taste sensations from the posterior one-third of the tongue The vagus nerve carries taste sensations from the epiglottis The neural pathways for taste extend from the medulla oblongata to the thalamus and to the cerebral cortex

Visual System
Consists of
Eye
eyeball optic nerve

Accessory Structures
eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles

Sensory Neurons

Accessory Structures
Eyebrows
Prevent perspiration from entering the eyes and help shade the eyes

Eyelids
Consist of five tissue layers Protect the eyes from foreign objects Help lubricate the eyes by spreading tears over their surface
Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids
Meibomian glands and sebaceous glands Ciliary glands lie between the hair follicles

Eyelashes
Project from the free margin of each eyelid Initiate reflex blinking

Conjunctiva
Covers the inner eyelid and the anterior part of the eye

Fig. 13.3

Fig. 13.4

Accessory Structures
Lacrimal Apparatus
Consists of the lacrimal gland, lacrimal canaliculi, and a nasolacrimal duct Lacrimal glands secrete tears
Tears
Contain mostly water, with some salts, mucus, and lysozyme Enter the eye via superolateral excretory ducts Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal canaliculi Drain into the nasolacrimal duct

Fig. 13.5

Accessory Structures
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Six strap-like muscles
Enable the eye to follow moving objects Maintain the shape of the eyeball

Four rectus muscles originate from the annular ring Two oblique muscles move the eye in the vertical plane

Fig. 13.6

Tab. 13.1

Anatomy of the Eye

A slightly irregular hollow sphere with anterior and posterior poles The eyeball is composed of three layers
Fibrous layer
Sclera Cornea

Vascular layer
Choroid Ciliary body Iris

Nervous layer
Retina

The internal cavity is filled with fluids called humors

Fig. 13.7

Fibrous Layer
Sclera
Posterior 4/5ths of the eye White connective tissue that maintains the shape of the eyeball Provides a site for muscle attachment

Cornea
Anterior 1/5th of the eye Transparent and refracts light that enters the eye

Vascular Layer
Choroid
A vascular network Many melanin-containing pigment cells Appears black in color Prevents the reflection of light inside the eye

Ciliary body
Ciliary ring
A thickened ring of tissue surrounding the lens Composed of smooth muscle bundles (ciliary muscles) Anchors the suspensory ligament that holds the lens in place Changes the shape of the lens

Ciliary process
produces aqueous humor

Vascular Layer
Iris
Smooth muscle regulated by the autonomic nervous system
Sphincter pupillae
Close vision and bright light: pupils constrict

Dilator pupillae
Distant vision and dim light: pupils dilate

Changes in emotional state: pupils dilate when the subject matter is appealing or requires problem-solving skills

Controls the amount of light entering the pupil Color is determined by the amount of melanin present
Large amounts of melanin: brown or black Less melanin: light brown, green, or grey Even less melanin: blue

Fig. 13.8

Nervous Layer
Retina
The inner layer of the eyeball Has over 126 million photoreceptor cells, which respond to light

Macula (fovea centralis)

Area of greatest sensitivity to light Highest concentration of photoreceptor cells

Optic disc
Location through which nerves exit and blood vessels enter the eye No photoreceptor cells The blind spot of the eye

Fig. 13.9

Chambers of the Eye

Composed of three chambers
Anterior chamber
Between the cornea and the iris

Posterior chamber
Between the iris and the lens

Viterous chamber
Much larger then the other two chambers Posterior to the lens

Chambers of the Eye

Aqueous Humor
Fills the anterior and posterior chambers Supports, nourishes, and removes wastes for the cornea, which has no blood vessels Produced by the ciliary processes as a blood filtrate Returned to the circulation through the scleral venous sinus

Vitreous Humor
Fills the vitreous chamber Contributes to intraocular pressure Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball Holds the lens and retina in place Functions in the refraction of light in the eye

Lens
A biconvex, transparent, flexible, avascular structure that:
Allows precise focusing of light onto the retina Is composed of epithelium and lens fibers
Lens epithelium: anterior cells that differentiate into lens fibers Lens fibers: cells filled with the transparent protein crystallin

With age, the lens becomes more compact and dense and loses its elasticity

Functions of the Complete Eye

Properties of Light
Electromagnetic spectrum
All energy waves from short gamma rays to long radio waves

Visible spectrum
Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected by the human eye

Refraction
Bending of light Light striking a concave surface refracts outward (divergence) Light striking a convex surface refracts inward (convergence) Converging light rays meet at the focal point and are said to be focused

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Fig. 13.10

Functions of the Complete Eye

Focusing system of the Eye (light refracting)
Cornea
Responsible for most of the convergence

Aqueous humor Lens

Adjusts the convergence by changing shape

Vitreous humor

Functions of the Complete Eye

Distant and Near Vision
Distant vision: looking at objects 20 feet or more from the eye Near vision: looking at objects less than 20 feet from the eye Relaxation of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to flatten, producing the emmetropic eye
Normal resting condition of the lens

Far point of vision

Point at which the lens does not have to thicken for focusing to occur Normally 20 feet or more from the eye

Near point of vision

Closest point an object can come to the eye and still be focused

Fig. 13.11

Functions of the Complete Eye

When an object is less than 20 feet from the eye, the image falling on the retina is no longer in focus Three events must occur to bring the image into focus
1. Accommodation by the lens
Contraction of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to become more spherical Change in the lens shape enables the eye to focus on objects that are less than 20 feet away

2. Constriction of the Pupil

Increases the depth of focus

3. Convergence of the eyes

Medial rotation of the eyes

Structure and Function of the Retina

Pigmented layer of the retina provides a black backdrop for increasing visual acuity Rods and cones synapse with bipolar cells Bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells, which form the optic nerve

Fig. 13.12

Fig. 13.12

Structure and Function of the Retina

Rods
Responsible for non-color vision and vision in low illumination (night vision) Rod-shaped photoreceptive part of the rods contains about 700 double-layered membranous discs Discs contain rhodopsin
A purple pigment consisting of the protein opsin covalently bound to a yellow photosensitive pigment called retinal (derived from Vit. A)

Fig. 13.13

Structure and Function of the Retina

Exposure to light activates rhodopsin
Rhodopsin is split by light into retinal and opsin, eventually resulting in an action potential Light adaptation is caused by a reduction of rhodopsin Dark adaptation is caused by rhodopsin production

Fig. 13.14

Structure and Function of the Retina

Cones
Responsible for color vision and visual acuity Three types, each with a different type of iodopsin photopigment
Pigments are most sensitive to blue, red, and green light

Perception of many colors results from mixing the ratio of the different types of cones that are active at a given moment

Fig. 13.15

Structure and Function of the Retina

Most visual images are focused on the fovea centralis and macula
Fovea centralis has a very high concentration of cones In the remaining macula there are more cones than rods Most rods are in the periphery of the retina

Bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina can modify information sent to the brain Interneurons in the inner layers of the retina enhance contrast between the edges of objects

Neuronal Pathways for Vision

Ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tracts
Extend to the thalamus and synapse Then the neurons form the optic radiations that project to the visual cortex

Depth perception is the ability to judge relative distances of an object from the eyes and is a property of binocular vision
Binocular vision results because a slightly different image is seen by each eye

Fig. 13.16a

Fig. 13.16bc

Fig. 13.17

Fig. 13.18

Hearing and Balance

Three parts of the ear are
External ear
Extends from the outside of the head to the tympanic membrane

Middle ear
Air-filled chamber medial to the tympanic membrane

Inner ear
Set of fluid-filled chambers medial to the middle ear

The external and middle ear are involved with hearing The inner ear functions in both hearing and equilibrium

Fig. 13.19

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

External Ear
Auricle
Fleshy part of the external ear

External acoustic meatus

Passageway that leads to the tympanic membrane Lined with hairs and ceruminous glands
Ceruminous glands produce cerumen (earwax)

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in response to sound Transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossicles Boundary between outer and middle ears

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Middle Ear
A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity
Flanked laterally by the eardrum Flanked medially by the oval and round windows

Contains three small bones: the malleus, incus, and stapes

Transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window Dampened by the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles

Auditory tube (pharyngotympanic or eustachian tube)

Connects the middle ear to the pharynx Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure

Fig. 13.20

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Inner Ear
Bony labyrinth
Interconnecting, fluid-filled tunnels and chambers within the temporal bone

Contains
Vestibule and semicircular canals: primarily involved in balance Cochlea: involved in hearing

Membranous labyrinth
Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth Filled with a potassium-rich fluid called endolymph

Space between the bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth is filled with perilymph

Fig. 13.21

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Cochlea
Spiral-shaped canal within the temporal bone Divided into three compartments by the vestibular and basilar membranes
Scala vestibuli and scala tympani contain perilymph Cochlear duct contains endolymph and the spiral organ
Spiral organ consists of inner hair cells and outer hair cells, which attach to the tectorial membrane Hair cells have hairlike projections at their apical ends, which are very long microvilli called stereocilia

Fig. 13.22

Fig. 13.23

Fig. 13.24

Auditory Function
Pitch is determined by the frequency of sound waves Volume is determined by the amplitude of sound waves Timbre is the resonant quality (overtones) of sound

Fig. 13.25

Auditory Function
Hearing involves
Sound waves funneled by the auricle down the external acoustic meatus cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate Tympanic membrane vibrations pass along the auditory ossicles to the oval window of the inner ear Movement of the stapes in the oval window causes the perilymph, vestibular membrane, and endolymph to vibrate and produces movement of the basilar membrane Movement of the basilar membrane causes bending of the stereocilia of inner hair cells in the spiral organ

Auditory Function
Hearing involves (cont.)
Bending of the stereocilia pulls on gating springs and opens K+ channels K+ ions enter the hair cell and result in depolarization of the cell Depolarization causes the release of glutamate, generating action potentials in the sensory neurons associated with hair cells The round window dissipates sound waves and protects the inner ear from pressure buildup

Fig. 13.26

Fig. 13.27

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

Axons from the vestibulocochlear nerve synapse in the medulla Neurons from the medulla project axons to the inferior colliculi, where they synapse Neurons from this point project to the thalamus and synapse Thalamic neurons extend to the auditory cortex Efferent neurons project to cranial nerve nuclei responsible for controlling muscles that dampen sound in the middle ear

Static Balance
Evaluates the position of the head relative to gravity and detects linear acceleration and deceleration Vestibule contains
The utricle and saccule in the inner ear
Contain maculae made of hair cells Hairs are embedded in an otolithic membrane
Consists of a gelatinous mass and crystals called otoliths Moves in response to gravity

Fig. 13.28

Fig. 13.29

Dynamic Balance
Evaluates movements of the head Semicircular Canals
Three semicircular canals at right angles to one another are present in the inner ear The ampulla of each semicircular canal contains the crista ampullaris
Has hair cells with hairs embedded in a gelatinous mass, the cupula

When the head moves, endolymph within the semicircular canals moves the cupula

Fig. 13.30

Fig. 13.31

Neuronal Pathways for Balance

Axons from the maculae and the cristae ampullares extend to the vestibular nucleus of the medulla Fibers from the medulla run to the spinal cord, cerebellum, cortex, and nuclei that control the extrinsic eye muscles Balance also depends on proprioception and visual input