WATER CONSERVATION

Introduction
Water is a scarce commodity. The increase in population being seen across the country and indeed, all over the world, coupled with increased industrial output, continues to place an increased strain on this valuable resource. This is the prime motivation for the water conservation movement, which is part of the larger sustainable development effort.

 Water conservation within the building industry is achieved by efficient use which in itself integrates policy with technology. Some of the policies cost little, if anything, to implement while some, particularly those that are technology heavy, might have a large capital outlay but the savings in regards to water bills will offset the expense in the mid to long term.

Best Management Practices for Water Conservation (non-domestic use)

i. Water management planning ii. Information and education programmes iii. Distribution System Audits, Leak Detection and Repair iv. Water-Efficient Landscaping and irrigation v. Water-Efficient sanitary ware vi. Water efficient kitchen systems vii. Alternate water sources

i.

Water management planning

Involves developing a comprehensive projection of a buildings potential water requirements, and coming up with policies and solutions that will conserve water. It is best included in the design stage of a building but can be used on those that are already up and operational as a retrofit measure.

ii. Information and education programmes

The human element is an important consideration when choosing to implement water efficiency technologies and methods. New operation procedures, retrofits, and replacements are most effective when employees, contractors, and the public know what the new technology or methods are and how to use them properly.

ii. Information and education programmes

Information is also important in helping mold public opinion, steering it towards being positive. Human beings tend to be resistant to change. Providing information makes the transition seem less harsh.

iii. Distribution system Audits, leak detection and repair

Facilities with large campus settings and expansive distribution systems can lose a significant amount of total water production and purchases to system leaks. Leaks in distribution systems are caused by a number of factors, including pipe corrosion, high system pressure, construction disturbances, frost damage, damaged joints, and ground shifting and settling.

iii. Distribution system Audits, leak detection and repai

Regular distribution system leak detection surveys can generate substantial benefits including: Reduced water losses: Reducing water losses stretch existing supplies to meet increasing demand. This could defer the construction of new water facilities such as wells, reservoirs, or treatment plants. Reduced operating costs: Repairing leaks saves money by reducing power costs to deliver water and chemical costs to treat water. Increased knowledge of the distribution system: Becoming more familiar with the system, including knowing the location of mains and valves empowers personnel to respond faster to emergencies such as main breaks. Reduced property damage: Repairing system leaks prevents damage to property and safeguards public health and safety. Improved justification for water management: Conducting routine water audits and verifying production and end point meters results in better accounting and helps validate the need to reduce water losses.

iii. Distribution system Audits, leak detection and repai

A distribution system audit helps to quantify system losses and target leak detection and repair. A leak detection survey then identifies leak locations, pinpointing the exact location so the leak can be repaired.

Case study: Kirtland Air Force Base Leak Detection and Repair Program
Overview Kirtland Air Force Base (AFB) performed an award winning leak detection and repair program in 2006. Kirtland AFB is located on 52,000 acres, southeast and adjacent to Albuquerque, New Mexico. The area is a high altitude desert, only receiving about 8 inches of rain each year. It draws water from an underground aquifer via seven production wells throughout the base. The base also has access to water from the City of Albuquerque. The underground water supply is declining, which has spurred Kirtland AFB to develop a water conservation program, including the leak detection and repair program featured in this case study.

Case study: Kirtland Air Force Base Leak Detection and Repair Program
Project summary Two leak detection approaches were considered by Kirtland AFB: passive survey and active survey. These two methods are described below:
o Passive survey involves installing listening devices on water lines at regular intervals to record the acoustic signatures that are used to identify leaks. o Where leaks are identified, additional equipment is applied to find the specific leak locations. Passive surveys are best suited for a permanent installation and long term monitoring of water lines. o The benefits include accurate leak location and size determination; good option for long-term monitoring of water lines. The disadvantages are that the survey equipment can only hear one leak at any given point in time and installation can be time consuming over long water lines

Case study: Kirtland Air Force Base Leak Detection and Repair Program
o Active survey involves leak detection crews using acoustic listening devices, while walking each water line to find leaks. This method is best suited for a large network of water lines in areas where multiple leaks are suspected. o The benefits include allowing for a relatively rapid survey of extensive water lines and providing exact leak locations as the survey progresses. o The primary disadvantage is that this method gives a one-time snapshot of system leaks which does not provide on-going leak detection options.

Case study: Kirtland Air Force Base Leak Detection and Repair Program
Kirtland AFB decided on the active survey method. In total, 108 miles of water distribution lines were investigated in the survey; this represents about 90% of the water distribution lines on the base. Through the survey it was determined that nearly 16% of the bases water use was lost through the water distribution system leakage. A total of 31 leaks were identified with an estimated average water loss of 333 gallons per minute. The study found that major leaks were primarily caused by offset joints (i.e., joints that are misaligned), while smaller leaks were caused by corrosion of the pipe material. The cost of the survey itself was approximately $75,000 (or roughly $695 per mile) and the repairs cost an additional $514,000. The survey and repairs saved the site over 179 million gallons annually, representing over 16% of the bases total water use, valued at more than $330,000 annually.

Case study: Kirtland Air Force Base Leak Detection and Repair Program

Figure 1 Minor leak found during inspection

Figure 2 Major leak found during inspection

Water efficient Landscaping and Irrigation

Water is necessary for plant life. The technical interventions employed in conserving water in landscaping fall into two broad categories:

o Landscaping choices
These include, but are not limited to: Implementing the use of porous paving which includes gravel and loose aggregate paving as well as permeable concrete pavers. Mulching: reduces water lost to the environment through evaporation Avoid the use of decorative water features Design the landscape so plants with similar water needs are grouped together (hydrozoning). This allows for more efficient irrigation Eliminate "strip grass" to the greatest extent possible. Small strips of grass, common in parking islands and between sidewalks and the roadway, are hard to maintain and difficult to water efficiently. Use bushes, mulch, or permeable hardscape in these areas instead. Recirculate water in decorative fountains, ponds, and waterfalls. Shut off these features when possible to reduce evaporation losses. Check water recirculation systems annually for leaks and other damage. Consider using non-potable water in these systems Implement low-impact development techniques, such as making parking lot islands depressions instead of raised curb areas to capture and retain storm water

Implementing the use of porous paving

It includes a range of materials and techniques for paving roads that allow the movement of water and air around the paving material. All these pervious materials allow storm water to percolate and infiltrate through areas that would traditionally be impervious to the soil below. By allowing rainwater to seep into the ground, pervious paving can be instrumental in recharging groundwater and reducing stormwater runoff. This capability can reduce the need for retention ponds, swales, and other stormwater management devices. Pervious paving integrates hardscape surfaces with stormwater management.

Types include: Pervious concrete: made from carefully controlled amounts of water and cementitious materials mixed to create a paste that forms a thick coating around aggregate particles. Unlike conventional concrete, the mixture contains little or no sand, creating a substantial void content between 15% and 25%. This allows for water to drain through quickly. Both the low mortar content and the high porosity reduce strength compared to conventional concrete, but sufficient strength is readily achieved for many applications.

Pervious concrete

Implementing the use of porous paving

Porous asphalt: is mixed at conventional asphalt plants, but fine (small) aggregate is omitted from the mixture. The remaining large, single-sized aggregate particles leave open voids that give the material its porosity and permeability. Under the porous asphalt surface is a base course of singlesized aggregate. Single sized aggregate: uniformly graded aggregate e.g. loose gravel or stone chippings

Combination porous asphalt and uniformly graded aggregate

Implementing the use of porous paving

Porous turf: using grass Open jointed blocks: allow water to percolate through the spaces between the joints

Figure 6 open blocks combined with turf

Figure 7 open jointed blocks allow water to percolate to the sub surface

Water efficient Landscaping and Irrigation

The other option is in regards to irrigation choices:
o Irrigation control systems that water plants only when needed should be implemented. There are many available technologies that use weather or soil moisture information to schedule irrigation according to plant needs. Below are a few options:
Weather-based irrigation controls use real-time or historical weather information along with landscape parameters entered by the vendor to schedule or allow for irrigation when plants need water. Soil-moisture-based irrigation controls are inserted into the soil to measure moisture. They can be connected to an existing controller or add-on device, enabling irrigation when only the plants need water. Complete central control systems utilize demand-based controls and enable a water manager to centrally operate and manage multiple irrigation systems at multiple locations using various means of communication.

o Implement low-flow, low-volume irrigation, also called micro-irrigation or drip irrigation. Many plant beds do not require the spray heads traditionally used to water turf areas. Drip irrigation can be more efficient due to slow and direct water application to plant root zones, minimizing evaporation and runoff.

Irrigation choices: drip choices

Case study: PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY GROUNDS MAINTENANCE

Overview The laboratory is located in an arid region of Washington State, receiving only eight inches of precipitation annually. It has more than 100 acres of turf and landscaped areas and nearly 50 acres of wild, undeveloped areas. PNNL has developed a comprehensive grounds maintenance program, which began in 2000. The program encompasses sound landscape design and maintenance of the plants and efficient application of water to these plants. The original goal of the program was to rejuvenate the existing landscape while saving water and energy.

Case study: PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY GROUNDS MAINTENANCE

The Project Trees
Prior to the comprehensive landscape management program at PNNL, many of the sites trees were watered with an outdated flood irrigation technique. The bubble-style irrigation heads watered trees at the base of the trunk, causing the tree roots to clump around the trunk instead of developing a broad root network. As part of the program, this system was replaced with sprinklers. Trees naturally have a small network of roots, called feeder roots that spread just below the surface of the ground outwards beyond the outer leaves of the tree. This perimeter is called the dripline. The feeder roots capture and soak up rain that falls beyond the dripline. By replacing the old style bubbler irrigation with sprinklers, PNNL replicates how trees naturally receive water from rain. The trees are now more disease and drought resistant and water used for irrigation has been reduced by 40%.

Turf
PNNL has extensive lawns throughout the campus totaling more than 100 acres. Through the master planning process, PNNL found that the turf was being overwatered; frequent and shallow watering created a highly compacted and water resistant soil. The compacted soil created an anaerobic condition in the root zone, which stunted the roots.

Case study: PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY GROUNDS MAINTENANCE

Anaerobic soil is devoid of oxygen. In compacted and wet areas, the oxygen gets squeezed out of the soil. When organic materials in the soil break down in anaerobic conditions, hydrogen sulfide is produced, causing a harsh environment for the plants root system, a foul smell, and black soil. To fix this problem, the lawns are now aerated and then topdressed with sand, which breaks up the compacted soil to allow oxygen and water to penetrate. The frequency of aeration and topdressing depends on the condition of the soil. Flat areas are typically aerated annually. But for areas with high traffic and compacted soil or areas that have steep slopes, aeration and topdressing is applied more frequently throughout the growing season. Aeration and topdressing has created a much longer root depth, improving the health of the lawn and decreasing the amount of water needed by 30%.

Case study: PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY GROUNDS MAINTENANCE

Xeric and Native Landscaping
PNNL grounds personnel are converting water-intensive and problematic landscaping into xeric and native areas. Xeric landscapes use native and low-water consuming plants that require minimal irrigation. A particular challenge for the PNNL groundskeepers was the high-water-use landscaping adjacent to parking lots and streets. These areas have been changed to low-water landscaping. The groundskeepers planted urbanite ash trees in such areas because this species of tree can tolerate the summer heat and is very drought resistant. Evergreen shrubs in parking medians have been replaced with bunchgrass, which is well adapted to the local climate because of its low water requirements and high resistance to diseases.

Irrigation System Improvements and Controls

PNNL performed a comprehensive maintenance program to upgrade the campus-wide irrigation system. Water output was tested along with sprinkler coverage so that the system could be fine-tuned to ensure broken sprinkler heads were repaired and all sprinkler heads were set correctly for efficient and effective coverage. The laboratory has also begun installation of a smart watering system that allows grounds maintenance workers to control irrigation to all landscaping zones from one central location. Maintenance workers set an optimal water schedule for each landscape zone at the central office, from which control signals are sent out via a wireless network to sprinklers. This centralized system also allows for quick changes based on weather conditions. The system will be enhanced with a weather-based system that will download weather data from a local weather station. Data such as rainfall amounts, wind speed, and humidity will be taken into account to determine the optimal water needs for the plants in real time.

Case study: PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY GROUNDS MAINTENANCE

Other better management techniques used on PNNL grounds include: Cutting the grass with mulching mowers, which reduces the need for fertilizers, helps retain moisture, reduces labor time for bagging and disposing of turf clippings, and also limits soil compaction because the mulching mowers are significantly lighter than the industrial mowers previously used. Allowing grass to grow longer between 3 and 3.5 inches in the summer months. This is beneficial because the longer grass shades roots and slows evaporation by keeping the root system cool. Testing soils to determine the exact fertilizer needs. Applying a 10% solution of mild liquid dish soap to the soil periodically to correct its water resistant nature. The soap helps the water molecules bind to the soil, thereby allowing the soil to retain

iv. Water efficient sanitary ware

A great proportion of the water used can be attributed directly to sanitary ware. For the purpose of clarity, this report will break it down into two major sections:
Water efficient toilets and urinals Water efficient taps and showerhead

Water efficient toilets and urinals

Toilets and urinals can account for nearly one-third of building water consumption. Old and inefficient toilet and urinal fixtures can be a major source of water waste in buildings, making the savings potential in this area rather significant. Of the appliances that use water, the WC uses the most; about 3040% of domestic water use and up to 90% for offices and public conveniences. The best way to achieve efficiency in these restroom fittings is by using low flow appliances and implementing the double flush system in toilets. Waterless urinals are also a good option for enhancing water conservation. Early closure or valve insert or replacement devices can reduce flush volumes by 2.25 to 7.5 litres per flush. However, they often require frequent replacement or adjustment, may lead to clogging and other flush performance problems, and may void warranties on the fixture itself. This makes them a poor choice.

Water efficient toilets and urinals

N.B.

Infrared or ultrasonic sensors for automatically flushing, flushometer valve-type toilets and urinals should not be considered a water-saving device. Rather, these devices make toilet and urinal operation fully "hands free" and sanitary. This is because they do not, in and of themselves, reduce the amount of water used by the appliance. They may, in fact, increase the water use in the facility if not properly calibrated.

Water efficient toilets and urinals

1. Low-flow appliances Low-flow toilets, also sometimes called ultra-low flow toilets (ULFTs), usually use one of two methods to clear waste: gravity or pressure-assisted. However, they all use 6 liters of water or less per flush. Gravity toilets clear waste when you move the flapper and water is released, dropping from the tank and flushing through the bowl. Gravity drives the waste out of the bowl. Pressure-assisted toilets, by contrast, compress a pocket of air, which acts to energize the water that's released into the bowl with each flush. The air is compressed within a vessel inside the tank each time it refills. Pressure-assisted toilets are a little noisier than gravity-fed models and they usually are more expensive as well, starting at more than $150 versus $75 or more for gravity-fed models. Since 1999, some toilets have been made available that use even less water per flush than the typical low-flow toilets. These are called high efficiency toilets (HETs) and utilize about 20 percent less water than the average low-flow toilets, or about 1.28 gallons (4.8 liters) per flush.

Water efficient toilets and urinals

Figure 9 low flow toilet: pressure assisted type Figure 10 low flow toilet: gravity assisted type

Water efficient toilets and urinals

2. Double flush systems

Double flush systems work on the premise that solid and liquid waste would require different volumes of water to be cleared, thus when one button is pushed and solid waste disappears, and when the other is pushed liquids are disposed of. Solid waste is cleared with 6 litres of water per flush, while urine is flushed away with only 3 litres. This means that when the latter is flushed in the traditional system, 3 litres of water are unduly spent. Some studies have shown that that on average only 1 out of 5 toilet visits actually require the full 6 litre capacity of toilets, which means that the other 4 visits waste about 12 litres of water.

Water efficient toilets and urinals

Figure 11 double flush toilet

Water efficient toilets and urinals

3. Waterless urinals Though somewhat controversial, waterless urinals do have a significant impact on the water consumption of a building. Water is used in conventional urinals to wash the bowl and flush the trap. The waterless urinal may employ the following methods to that end:
1. Valve Waterless Urinal Systems Urine passes through a one-way 'plastic' valve that, when closed, prevents odours from being emitted into the washroom. These generally require some regular maintenance to clear urine crystals and debris, including hair. It is important not to allow the valve to become stuck open, especially if the urinal trap the previously prevented odours has been replaced with a "rightangled" straight-through connection. The idea of removing the trap is that the flow of urine alone will carry the hair and other debris in to the main drain.

Water efficient toilets and urinals

Valve systems can work very well if properly maintained and they are available to retrofit most types of standard urinal bowls. Some models include a scented or microbiological block to complement the valve. The main problem of this type is that the valve can be left open due to hair and debris clogging the outlet.

Figure 12 Smell stop valve of the valve waterless urinal system

Water efficient toilets and urinals

2. Barrier Waterless Urinal Systems Urine and debris passes through an oil-based barrier fluid which forms the seal to prevent odours reaching the washroom. In some systems, the barrier fluid is contained within a replaceable cartridge that also captures debris which would otherwise fall into the waste pipes. Cartridges typically need to be replaced every 2 to 5 months, dependent on usage. The barrier fluid can be swiftly degraded if the correct cleaning chemicals are not used. Otherwise, barrier systems work very well, although those that use replaceable cartridges can be expensive to run for busy washrooms.

Water efficient toilets and urinals

Figure 13 Barrier system cartridge Figure 14 Waterless urinal

Water efficient toilets and urinals

3. Microbiological Waterless Urinal Systems

Urine comes into contact with a block, often housed within a dome inserted into the urinal waste outlet. The block contains a number of active ingredients, including surfactants, but the most important of these is the microbial spores. Once taken down into the trap with the urine, the spores become active beneficial bacteria that 'feed' upon the urine and then multiply. By breaking down the urine into components, the bacteria from the block prevent the build-up of sludge and crystals that are a major contributing cause to blockages. They also generate an environment hostile to the 'bad' bacteria that cause odours. Providing that some block is present and it contains the appropriate ingredients, then there is no requirement for "odour lock" mechanisms or valves. Appropriate cleaning chemicals must be used and simple but regular maintenance is required. Most importantly, the microbes cannot break down hair, grit and other debris that inevitably finds its way into the urinal trap and thence the waste runs. Therefore to push the debris down to the main drain before it can collect and cause a blockage, it is essential to pour some fluid down each urinal at regular intervals, usually once per week. This "dosing" process is most effective when a mixture of warm water and an appropriate chemical is used

Water efficient toilets and urinals

Figure 16 Microbiological waterless urinal

Figure 15 microbiological dome

Water efficient taps and showerheads

Water efficient taps and showerheads are those that allow a smaller volume of water through them at a given time in order to reduce the amount of water wasted. According to the WaterSense criteria the maximum flow rate should be in the 7.5 litres per minute range. Flow may be regulated using a rubber ring known as a flow restrictor or may be implemented in the appliances heads design.

Water efficient taps and showerheads

Figure 17 Showerhead with and without a flow restrictor.

CASE STUDY: Huntington Veterans Affairs Medical CentreFaucet and Showerhead Replacement Project

Overview:
The Huntington Veterans Affairs (VA) Medical Center implemented an award winning faucet and showerhead water efficiency program in 2007. The efficiency improvements save the medical center more than 1.5 million gallons of water each year.

CASE STUDY: Huntington Veterans Affairs Medical CentreFaucet and Showerhead Replacement Project
Project Summary The Huntington VA Medical Center implemented a large retrofit of faucets and showerheads in its 1-South section, which contains offices, clinics, a surgery unit, patient rooms, and laboratories. Conducted in 2007, the retrofit was part of the medical centers Green Environmental Management Service (GEMS) initiative. New 1.5 gallon per minute (gpm) laminar flow faucets replaced 178 outdated 2.5 gpm models. A laminar flow head delivers tiny side-by-side streams of water, that provide a continuous flow while maintaining a low flow rate. Laminar faucets tend to have less splashing and lend a smooth feel to the water. The GEMS initiative also converted 33 showerheads from 2.2 gpm to 1.75 gpm models with flow restrictor style heads. The retrofit utilized the existing pressure and temperature compensating valves in the shower stalls. The efficient retrofits perform well while providing an adequate flow rate for both patients and staff. The Huntington VA Medical Centre also implemented additional fixture efficiency retrofits, including converting 87 toilets to both 1.6 gallon per flush (gpf) and dual flush toilets. Dual flush toilets have a full and partial flush option with average water use of approximately 1.3 gpf.

CASE STUDY: Huntington Veterans Affairs Medical CentreFaucet and Showerhead Replacement Project
Cost and Savings Summary Retrofitting faucets and showerheads save the Huntington VA Medical Centre 1,538,000 gallons of water each year. This data is based on actual pre- and postretrofit metered data and was derived based on average patient and staff occupancy rates over the year. Huntington VA Medical Centre enjoys an annual cost savings of $12,900 based on combined water and sewer costs of $10 per thousand gallons. In addition, using less hot water saves energy resulting in an annual energy savings of 5,800 therms per year creating an additional $7,200 in annual cost savings. The centre spent $771 for total material costs and $2,637 for in-house labour to install the features. As a result of combined water and energy savings, the Huntington VA Medical Centre achieved a project payback in less than two months. Since completing the plumbing fixture retrofits in 2008, Huntington staff evaluated water use and found that consumption decreased 11 per cent from fiscal year 2006 compared to 2008. This reduction includes faucet and showerhead retrofits described in this case study as well as other conservation efforts, such as a toilet retrofit done during the same time period. The bar chart above right shows actual water use at the medical centre in fiscal year 2006 through 2008, revealing more than three million gallons of annual water savings.

vi. Water efficient commercial kitchen systems

Water efficiency for commercial kitchen equipment is especially important because high volume applications typically use mostly hot water. Ensuring commercial kitchen equipment uses water efficiently affords both significant water and energy savings. Water-using commercial kitchen equipment include pre-rinse spray valves, wash tanks and sinks, commercial dishwashers, food steamers, steam kettles, commercial ice makers, and combination ovens (combination oven/steamer). Garbage disposals can waste significant amounts of water. Eliminate or minimize the use of garbage disposals by using strainers or traps that employ a mesh screen to collect food waste. When installing dishwashing machines, only install dishwashers with rack sensors to allow water flow only when dishes are present. Also ensure that they are energy efficient for maximum impact.

vii. Alternate water sources

Alternate water sources refer to the use of recycled or grey water as well as rainwater to supplement the use of fresh water in nonpotable applications. This will have been discussed under waste water management.