Electric Power Quality: by S. S. (Mani) Venkata Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

Copyright 2001 by Prof. S. S. Venkata.
Electric Power Quality

by
S. S. (Mani) Venkata
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa

OUTLINE

PART I: Power Quality Definitions & Concepts.

PART II: Sources & Mitigation Schemes.

PART III: Case Study of Practical Example.

Electric Power Quality
Tutorial
Part I: Power Quality
Definitions & Concepts
by
S. S. (Mani) Venkata
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
December 29, 2001

PQ TUTORIAL: PART I 4/57
Power Quality Definitions
What is Power Quality (PQ) ?
Why is it important to Energy Suppliers?
Why is it important to Customers?
Typical PQ Problems.
Impact of PQ on Utilities and Customers.
Focus on Three Aspects of Power Quality
Harmonics
Voltage Sags
Voltage Flicker
Review of Power Concepts under Non-sinusoidal
Conditions.

Classical Distribution Systems

Future Distribution Systems

What is Power Quality?
Power quality broadly refers to the
delivery of a sufficiently high grade of
electric service.
In general, it involves maintaining a
sinusoidal load bus voltage at stipulated
magnitude and frequency.

Voltage/Current Waveforms at
a Veneer Plant


Typical Power Quality Problems
1. Disturbances
- Voltage Dip (SAG)
- Brief Voltage Increases (SWELLS)
- Outages
- Transients
- Voltage Notches
2. Unbalance
3. Distortion
- Voltage Harmonics
- Current Harmonics
4. Voltage Fluctuation
- Step Voltage Changes (regular or irregular)
- Cyclic or Random Voltage Changes
5. Flicker

Typical Power Quality Problems (cont.)



Why is Power Quality
Important?

It affects both utilities as
suppliers and customers as
users

Impact on Customer Side
Computers and communication equipment are
susceptible to power system disturbances which
can lead to loss of data and erratic operation.

Automated manufacturing processes such as
paper-making machinery, chip-making
assembly lines, etc. can shutdown in case of
even short voltage sags.

Impact on Customer Side (cont.)
Induction and synchronous motors can have excessive
losses and heating.

Home electronic equipment are vulnerable to power
quality problems - e.g., blinking VCR machines and
digital clocks.

Equipment and process control malfunction translates
to dollars of expense for replacement parts and for
down time, impacting adversely on profitability and
product quality.

Impact on Utility Side
Failure of power-factor correction capacitors
due to resonance conditions.
Increased losses in cables, transformers and
conductors, especially neutral wires.
Errors in energy meters, which are calibrated
to operate under sinusoidal conditions.

Impact on Utility Side (cont.)
Incorrect operation of protective relays,
particularly in solid-state and microprocessor-
controlled systems.

Interference with ripple control and power line
carrier systems used for remote switching, load
control, etc.

Unhappy customers as well as malfunction and
failure of system components and control
systems, impacting adversely on profitability.


Total Cost of PQ Problems &
Solutions
Annual Cost of Problems
Estimated as $ 180 M to Users + $ 300 M to Utilities,
Total of $ 480 M per year

Total cost of solutions
Estimated as $3+ Billion by EPRI based on the amount
expended by the industry to mitigate PQ problems

Focus on Three Aspects of Power
Quality
Harmonics
Voltage Sags
Voltage Flicker

Harmonics and Their Impact
on Equipment and Systems
Linear Loads: draw Currents proportional to
applied voltages.
Examples: incandescent lighting, heating
and motor loads

Non-linear loads: draw current only a part of
the voltage cycle.
Examples: computers, adjustable speed
drives and programmable logic converters.

Harmonics and Their Impact
on Equipment and Systems
The resulting current from nonlinear
loads contains 3
rd
, 5
th
, 7
th
, ...harmonics.

Harmonic currents permeate into source
currents.

Source currents having harmonic content
impact source voltage.


Metering Errors
Induction Watt-Hour Meter
Induction watt-hour meters work on the same principles
as an induction motor.
Positive sequence harmonics aid disk rotation.
Negative sequence harmonics retard the disk.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
+ - 0 + - 0 + - 0 +
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 120 240 360 480 600
Hz
R
e
a
d
i
n
g
/
A
c
t
u
a
l
Meter Frequency Response

Linear Load: the consumer pays for unused energy
due to voltage distortion.

Non-Linear Load: the consumer pays even more for
unused energy due to both voltage and current
distortion

Both Cases: the metering error is more significant
when the load is light and the harmonic energy is a
large % of the energy transferred through the meter

Metering Errors (cont.)
Linear
Load
>
>
<
Ph
Sinusoidal
Voltage
Non-Linear
Load
>
W
>
<
P1 P1
Distorted
Voltage
Ph
W

Harmonic Resonance
Parallel Resonance Series Resonance
Harmonic
Source
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Capacitor
Capacitor
Harmonic
Source
ONE-LINE DIAGRAM
S
o
u
r
c
e
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Cap.
Capacitor
ONE-LINE DIAGRAM
Line
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
L
i
n
e
i
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Harmonic
Source
Harmonic
Source
S
o
u
r
c
e
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

Harmonic Resonance (cont.)
Series resonance caused by
transformer and secondary
capacitor.
Harmonic source on the
primary can cause a high
voltage distortion on the
secondary.
This can result in capacitor
failure if the capacity of
harmonic source(s) on the
primary is larger than the
capacitor rating.
Primary
Loads
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Harmonic
Source
Capacitor
T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r
R
e
a
c
t
a
n
c
e
ONE-LINE DIAGRAM
Capacitor
Secondary
Harmonic
Source
Loads

Example of Resonance

Harmonics Analysis
The Fourier Series:
Any periodic
waveform can be
represented by an
infinite series of sine
waves having
frequencies which are
multiples of the
fundamental
frequency, i.e.,
harmonics.

Fourier Series-Basic Equations
Let f(t) be a periodic waveform with fundamental frequency e
0

The Fourier Series Representation of f(t) is:

f(t) = a
0
+ a
1
cose
0
t + a
2
cos2e
0
t +
+ b
1
sine
0
t + b
2
sin2e
0
t + (1.1)

= a
0
+ a
n
cos(ne
0
t) + b
n
sin(n e
0
t) (1.2)

=1 n

=1 n

Fourier Series - Basic Equations (cont.)
where
a
0
= (d.c. component) (1.3)
a
n
= (1.4)

b
n
= (1.5)
}
T
0
dt f(t)
T
1
}
T
0
0
dt t n sin f(t)
T
2
e
dt t n cos f(t)
T
2
T
0
0 } e

We have from Eq. 1.3 to Eq. 1.5:
0 . 1 . 1
T
1
T
0
T 2
T
0
=
(
+ =
} }
dt dt a
i.e., no dc component
0 . cos . 1 . cos . 1
T
2
T
0
2
0 0
=
(
+ =
} }
T
T
n
dt t n dt t n a e e
(
+ =
} }
T
0
T 2
T
0 n
t.dt n sin . 1 t.dt n sin . 1
T
2
b
0
e
e
n H
=
4
if n is odd
0 =
if n is even
Thus f(t) can be represented as :
(
+ + + +
H
= ... 7 sin
7
1
5 sin
5
1
3 sin
3
1
sin
4
) (
0 0 0 0
t t t t t f
e e e e

Example of Fourier Series

Harmonics Indices
THD: Total Harmonic Distortion: Ratio of rms
value of total harmonic content to rms value of
fundamental

TIF:Telephone Interference Factor

C-Message Weights

V.T and I.T Products


Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
The most commonly used power quality measure
It is defined as the ratio of the root-mean square of the
harmonic content to the root-mean square value of the
fundamental quantity. Frequently the THD is
expressed in percent

1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
...
V
V V V V
THD
+ + + +
=
(for voltage)
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
...
I
I I I I + + + +
=
(for current)

THD (cont.)
The THD is zero for a perfectly sinusoidal wave. It
increases indefinitely as the waveform distortion
increases.
A THD of 5% is commonly cited as the border line
between high and low distortion for distribution
circuits.
Balanced THD includes only positive and negative
sequence signals
Residual THD includes only triplen or zero-
sequence signals only.



Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
The TIF is a variation of the THD in which the
harmonic components are weighted by factors which
reflect:
The frequency response of the human ear and
The variation of the inductive coupling between adjacent
circuits with frequency.

It is defined as: TIF =

(Frequently, the TIF is expressed in percent.)

The ANSI 368 Standard recommends truncation of the
infinite series at 5.0 kHz.

...
... I I I I I
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
I I I I I
w w w w w

Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
(cont.)
The TIF is often used to asses interference of
power distribution circuits with audio
communication circuits.

It is useful for assessing interference with
analog telephone circuits, but is not indicative
of interference with circuits which use
techniques such as pulse code modulation
(PCM).

Table. C-message and TIF weighting coefficients
TIF weighting factors vs. frequency

C-message weights
The C-message weighted index is similar to the TIF
except that weights c
i
are used instead of w

C=

The C-message weights are related to the TIF weights
as follows:

...
... I
c
I
c
I
c
I
c
I
c
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
I I I I I
i i
w c if =
0
5

C-message weights
Unlike the TIF weights, the C-message
weights do not take into consideration
linear variation of mutual coupling of
circuits with frequency.

V.T and I.T products
The THD does not take into account the strength (level)
of the signal. The V.T product is an alternative index
which incorporates the voltage amplitude.
V.T =

ws are weights that are listed in Table 2.2 of Heydts
book
The I.T product is a similar index for line currents.
I.T =
... V V V V V
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + +
w w w w w
V rms
TIF V . =
... I I I I I
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + +
w w w w w
I rms
TIF I . =

Voltage Sags

A voltage sag is when a customer experiences
temporary voltage levels lower than a specified
level (between 0.9 and 0.1 pu)

Causes:
Short-circuit conditions (Faults)
Starting large motors, etc.

Voltage Sags
Effects:
Duration-dependent
Failure of computer equipment
Outages of sensitive process plants

Measures
CBEMA Curve (1978): less stringent restrictions
ITIC Curve (1996): demands more severe
performance standards

The CBEMA (Computer Business Equipment manufacturers
Association) Curve
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
TIME IN SECONDS
P
E
R
C
E
N
T

C
H
A
N
G
E

I
N

B
U
S

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
8
.
3
3

m
s
OVERVOLTAGE CONDITIONS
UNDERVOLTAGE CONDITIONS
0
.
5

C
Y
C
L
E
RATED
VOLTAGE
ACCEPTABLE
POWER

The ITIC (Information Technology Industry Council) Curve
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
TIME IN SECONDS
P
E
R
C
E
N
T

C
H
A
N
G
E

I
N

B
U
S

V
O
L
T
A
G
E
8
.
3
3

m
s
OVERVOLTAGE CONDITIONS
UNDERVOLTAGE CONDITIONS
0
.
5

C
Y
C
L
E
RATED
VOLTAGE
ACCEPTABLE
POWER
10% +
--

Alternative Power Acceptability Curves

Curve Year Application Source
FIPS power
acceptability
curve
1978 Automatic data
processing
(ADP)
equipment
U.S. federal
government
CBEMA
curve
1978 Computer
business
equipment
Computer
Business
Equipment
Manufacturers
Association
ITIC curve 1996 Information
technology
equipment
Information
Technology
Industry
Council
Failure rate
curves for
industrial
loads
1972 Industrial loads IEEE Standard
493
AC line
voltage
tolerances
1974 Mainframe
computers
IEEE Standard
446
IEEE
Emerald
Book
1992 Sensitive
electronic
equipment
IEEE Standard
1100

If loads such as arc furnaces cause
variation in the distribution bus voltage
which has a spectral characteristic
which lies between a fraction of a Hertz
and about one third of the system
frequency, this condition is called
flicker.
Voltage Flicker Definition

Flicker is a characteristic where a high frequency
(e
0
) sinusoid is modulated by a low frequency
sinusoid (e
f
).
Mathematically,
v(t) = (1 + V
f
cos(e
f
t)) V
m
cos (e
0
t)
Side-band frequencies of (e
0

e
f
) will be present.


Intensity of Flicker, F

where S
scf
= short-circuit kVA at electrode tip
S
sc
= short-circuit kVA at PCC
(point of common coupling)
Perceptibility of Flicker depends on both
V
f
and e
f
.
S
S
V
V
sc
scf
m
f
= =

Power Component
Definitions:P,Q,S,...
Sinusoidal System Power Concepts

t sin 2 e V v = ; ) - t ( sin 2 | e I i =
( ) t 2 sin sin t 2 cos 1 cos * e e u u = = VI VI i v p
( ) t 2 sin t 2 cos 1 e e Q P =
power or cos active real VI P u =
power sin reactive VI Q u =
power
2 2
apparent Q P VI S + = =
u = = cos / . . S P f p

Graphical Interpretation

Physical Interpretation
Real power, P is the average value of instantaneous
power. It represents the useful power being
transmitted.
Reactive power, Q is the peak value of that power
component which travels back and forth on the line,
resulting in the zero average.
Apparent power, S determines the loading of the
system and is used for rating power apparatus.
Power factor of a system is an indicator of the
efficiency with which power is transmitted. It is
desirable to have a power factor close to 1.

Non-Sinusoidal System Power Concepts
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

Rms voltage =V = V
RMS
=

Rms current = I = I
RMS
=

Apparent power, S = VI = V
RMS
I
RMS

Real power, P =

1
2
4
2
3
2
2
...
V
V V V + + +
=
...
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + V V V V
...
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + I I I I
... cos cos cos
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
+ u + u + u I V I V I V

Reactive Power = ?
Budeanus Definition:

Distortion power, D =

Fryzes Definition:

Reactive power,

... sin sin sin
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
+ u + u + u = I V I V I V Q
B
2 2 2
Q P S
2 2
P S Q
F
=
2
2 2
D Q Q
B F
+ =

Power Components for Non-sinusoidal
Conditions

References
S. S. Venkata, G. T. Heydt, Proceedings of the NSF Workshop
on Electric Power Quality, J an. 1991, Grand Canyon, AZ, USA.
2. J. Arrillaga, N. R. Watson, S. Chen, Power System Quality
Assessment, J ohn Wiley & Sons, England, 2000.
3. R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan, H. W. Beaty, Electrical
Power Systems Quality, McGraw-Hill, USA,1996.
4. G. T. Heydt, Electric Power Quality, Stars in a Circle, USA,
1991.
5. E. Acha, M. Madrigal, Power Systems Harmonics: Computer
Modeling and Analysis, J ohn Wiley & Sons, England, 2001.
6. A. E. Emanuel, IEEE Tutorial Course: Nonsinusoidal
Situations Effects on The Performance of Meters and
Definitions of Power, I EEE, USA,1990.

Electric Power Quality: by S. S. (Mani) Venkata Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

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Electric Power Quality: by S. S. (Mani) Venkata Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

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Copyright 2001 by Prof. S. S. Venkata.

Electric Power Quality

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