WEEK 1

Chapter 1
Diode Basics, Application and Special Diodes

Chapter Outline
1.1 Atomic Structure of Semiconductor 1.2 Semiconductor Material and PN Junction 1.3 Diode 1.4 Diode Characteristics 1.5 Special Purposes Diodes 1.6 Diode in DC and AC Circuits 1.7 Diode Applications

Atomic Structure
All matter is made from atom. All atoms consists of electrons (negative charge), protons (positive charge) and neurons (uncharged). An atom is the smallest particle of an element. Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons and protons that distinguishes it from the atoms of all other elements. The atomic number equals the number protons in the nucleus, which is the same as the number of electrons in an electrically balanced (neutral) atom. (the positive charges cancel the negative charges and the atom has a net charge of zero).
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Atomic Structure
Energy increases as the distance from the nucleus increases (electrons near nucleus have less energy than those in more distant orbits). These energy level known as shells, and each shell has a maximum number of electrons at permissible energy levels. There are 7 layer of shell that orbit the nucleus. The maximum electron, Ne are determine by, 2 x n2, where n is number of layer of shell.

Atomic Structure
electron
neuron proton

The Bohr model of an atom showing electrons in orbits around the nucleus, which consists of protons and neutrons (Nitrogen configuration)
http://education.jlab.org/qa/atom_model_03.gif

Atomic Structure
Electrons that are in orbits farther from nucleus have higher energy and are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus. This is because the force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases with increasing distance from the nucleus. Electrons in the outermost shell have highest energy. The outermost shell is known as valence shell and electrons in the shell are called valence electrons.

Atomic Structure
Atomic number for Aluminium is 13. i. What is electron configuration for Aluminium? ii. Draw a diagram of a Aluminium atom. iii. How many electrons valence for Aluminium atom?

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Atomic Structure
When an atom absorbs energy, the energies of the electrons are raised. The electron valence posses more energy and are more loosely bound to the atom. So they can easily jump to higher orbits within the valence shell when external energy is absorbed by the atom. If a valence electrons acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it can actually escape from the outer shell and atoms influence. The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization (the atom become positive charge with more protons than electrons). The escape valence electron is called a free electron.
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Atomic Structure
The chemical symbol for hydrogen is H. When a neutral hydrogen loses its valence electron and becomes a positive ion, it is designated H+. What is happened if the hydrogen atom receive electron?

Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal conditions. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms, therefore, there are very few free electrons in an insulator. Examples of insulators are rubber, glass, mica, etc.

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Conductors
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current. The best conductors are single-elements materials (copper, silver, gold), which are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom.

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Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current. A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. The most common single-element semiconductors are silicon, germanium and carbon (the single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with four valence electron).

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Energy Bands
When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can leave the valence shell, become free electron, and exist in what is known as the conduction band. The different in energy between the valence band and the conduction band is called an energy gap. This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in order to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move throughout the material and is not tied to any given atom.

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Energy Bands
Energy Energy Energy Conduction band

Energy gap

Conduction band Overlap Energy gap Conduction band

Valence band

Valence band

Valence band

a) Insulator

b) Semiconductor

c) Conductor

Energy diagrams for the three types of materials

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Energy Bands
The valence electron of metal are held loosely by all atom and free to move about. This electron holds the positive ions of the metal together, forming metallic bonding.

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Comparison Between Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator

Characteristic Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Resistance

Low resistance for High resistance so easy current flow. current cannot flow.

Between conductor and insulator.

Valence electron

Atom is tend to release valence electron and it flow freely from one atom to another.
Conduction and valence band overlap, electron easily move

Atom is tend to absorb valence electron to valence layer to make it stable and try avoid electrical of chemical activity.
The energy gap is big, so electron cannot easily move.

Difficult to free or accept valence electron from other atom.

Energy band

Between conductor and insulator.

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Silicon and Germanium

Silicon is the most widely used material in diodes, transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductors devices. Both silicon and germanium have the characteristic of four valence electrons.

Silicon atom

Germanium atom

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Silicon and Germanium

The valence electrons in germanium are in fourth shell while in silicon in the third shell, closer to the nucleus. Germanium valence electrons are at higher energy level than those in silicon (require a small amount of additional energy to escape from the atom). This property makes germanium more unstable at high temperature. This is why silicon is a more widely used as a semi-conductive material.

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Covalent Bonds
Atom with 4 valence electron is not stable and it try to complete it from 4 to 8 by sharing valence electron with other atom. The sharing valence electron is called covalent bond. This will make the atom is stable and the bond is strong. At absolute zero temperature all electron is in valence band and it will act as insulator. At room temperature many electron have sufficient energy to move to conduction band and it will act as conductor. Silicon absorb more heat than germanium before it act as conductor, so its more popular.
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Silicon Covalent Bonds

Figure below shows how each silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent silicon atoms to form a silicon crystal.

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Silicon Covalent Bonds

This effectively creates eight shared valence electrons for each atom and produces a state of chemical stability. The centre silicon atom shares an electrons with each of four surrounding silicon atoms, creating a covalent bond with each. The surrounding atom are in turn bonded to other atoms and so on.

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Current In Semiconductors
-Conduction Electrons and Holes When an intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal covalent bond interrupted by heat, temperature, doping electron will release from the atom bond and jump to conduction band becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also called conduction electrons. Electron is negative charge and is called negative current carrier. A vacancy is left in the valence band and it is called hole (its positive charge). It also called positive current carrier.

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Current In Semiconductors
-Conduction Electrons and Holes For every electron free, there is one hole left in valence band and create electron-hole pair. Recombination occurs when a conduction band lost energy.

Hole Electron

Heat energy

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Current In Semiconductors
-Electrons and Holes Current-

Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the movement of thermally generated free electrons
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Current In Semiconductors
-Electrons and Holes Current When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, free electrons are generated in the conduction band (easily attracted toward the positive end). The movement of these free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductive materials, called electron current. Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the holes created by the free electrons exist. Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms and are not free to move randomly as the free electrons.

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Current In Semiconductors
-Electrons and Holes Current However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little change in its energy electrons, thus leaving another hole where it came from. Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another in the crystal structure. This is called hole current even though the current in the valence band is produced by valence electrons. When a valence electron moves left to right to fill a hole while leaving another hole behind, the hole has effectively move from right to left.

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N-Type and P-Type Semiconductor

Doping is a process which impurity atoms are introduces to intrinsic semiconductor in order to alter the balance between holes and electron. There are two categories of impurities : n-type and p-type

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N-Type semiconductor
To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent atom (atoms with 5 valence electrons such as arsenic (As), antimony (Sb)) are added.

Pentavalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. An antimony (Sb) impurity atom is shown in the centre. The extra electron from the Sb atom becomes a free electron.

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N-Type semiconductor
Each pentavalent atom (antimony) forms covalent bond with four adjacent silicon atoms. Four of the antimony atoms valence electron are used to form the covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron (this is conduction electron because not involved in bonding). The pentavalent atom also called as donor atom. The number of conduction electrons can be controlled by the number of pentavalent impurity atoms added to the silicon. The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type materials. There are also a few holes created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated and holes in n-type material are called minority carriers.
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P-Type semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent atom (atoms with 3 valence electrons such as boron (B), indium (In)) are added.

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. A boron (B) impurity atom is shown in the centre.
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P-Type semiconductor
Each trivalent atom (boron) forms covalent bond with four adjacent silicon atoms. 3 of the boron atoms valence electron are used in the covalent bonds and since 4 electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is added. The trivalent atom also called as acceptor atom (trivalent atom can take an electron). The number of holes can be controlled by the number of trivalent impurity atoms added to the silicon. The holes are called the majority carriers in p-type materials. There are also a few conduction-band electrons created when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated and electrons in p-type material are called minority carriers.
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