Need to understand atoms and their structure to understand concepts of current and voltage
Proton
Positive charge Radius ~ 2 x 10-15 m (dime) Negative charge Radius ~ 2 x 10-15 m Orbit ~ 5 x 10-11 m (1/4 mile)
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Electron
Helium
No charge Slightly heavier than protons NOT contained in hydrogen Contained in ALL other elements
In all neutral atoms the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
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Mass
Electron 9.11 x 10-28 g Proton 1.672 x 10-24 g Neutron 1.672 x 10-24 g Protons and neutrons have about 2,000 times the mass of electrons Radius is on the order of 2 x 10-15 m
Atomic Shells
Shell 1st 2nd 3rd 4th nth Identifier k l m n Number of Electrons 2 8 18 32 2n2
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Atomic Subshells
Subshell s p d Number of Electrons 2 6 10
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Coulombs Law
Charles Augustin de Coulomb (17361806) Unlike charges attract Like charges repel Force of attraction (repulsion) between two bodies given as: F = k Q1 Q2 / r2
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Coulombs Law
F is the force of attraction (repulsion) in Newtons k is a constant, 9.0 X 109 Nm2/C2 Q1, Q2 charges in Coulombs, C r distance between two charges in meters
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Removing Electrons
Easier to remove electron from outer subshell than inner subshell Electrons easier to remove from subshells that are incomplete AND have few electrons
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Copper
Most commonly used metal in electrical/electronic industry 29th electron loosely bound
Distance to nucleus Only electron in shell Incomplete shell Easy to become free electron
In 1 in3 of copper at room temperature there are 1.4 x 1024 free electrons
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http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node178.html
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2.2 Current
Random motion of free electrons at room temperature with no external forces applied Positive ions created when an atom loses its free electron Free electrons move about Positive ions oscillate about a fixed position
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Charge Carrier
The free electron is the charge carrier in a copper wire or any other solid conductor of electricity Free electrons are constantly gaining and losing energy through:
Flow of Charge
With no external forces applied, the net flow of charge in a conductor in any one direction is zero Connecting a battery and light bulb creates a simple electrical circuit Chemical energy in battery puts positive charge at one terminal and negative charge at other Free electrons travel from negative terminal (supply) to positive terminal Analogous to water hose 19
Ampere
If 6.242 x 1018 electrons drift at a uniform velocity through an imaginary cross section in 1 second, the flow of charge, or current, is said to be 1 Ampere Andr Marie Ampre (1775-1836)
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1 Coulomb is the charge associated with 6.242 x 1018 electrons Charge per electron is determined as: 1 / 6.242 x 1018 = 1.602 x 10-19 C
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Calculating Current
I=Q/t
Example 2.1
The charge flowing through an imaginary surface is 0.16 C every 64 ms. Determine the current in Amperes. I=Q/t = 0.16 C / 64 x 10-3s = 2.50 A
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Example 2.2
Determine the time required for 4 x 1016 electrons to pass through an imaginary surface if the current is 5 mA.
Q = 4 x 1016 electrons / 6.242 x 1018 electrons/C = 6.41 x 10-3 C
t=Q/I = 6.41 x 10-3 C / 5 x 10-3 A =1.282 s
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Safety Considerations
Even small levels of current can cause serious side effects to the human body Any current over 10 mA should be considered dangerous Currents of 50 mA can cause severe shock Currents over 100 mA can be fatal Resistance of dry skin is high enough to limit current through body to safe levels
2.3 Voltage
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Potential Energy
w potential energy (J) m mass g gravitational acceleration, 9.8 m/s2 h height (m)
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Potential Difference
Potential Difference
A potential difference of 1 volt (V) exists between two points if 1 Joule (J) of energy is exchanged in moving 1 Coulomb (C) of charge between two points A potential difference or voltage is always measured between two points in a system Changing either point may change the potential difference between the two points under investigation
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Potential Difference
V=w/Q V potential difference in volts w work in Joules Q charge in Coulombs
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Example 2.3
Find the potential difference between two points in an electrical system if 60 J of energy are expended by a charge of 20 C between two points. V=w/Q = 60 J / 20 C =3V
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Example 2.4
Determine the energy expended moving a charge of 50 C through a potential difference of 6 V. w=V*Q = 6 V * 50 * 10-6 C = 300 * 10-6 J = 300 J
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Notation
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Terminology
Potential
The voltage at a point with respect to another point in the electrical system. Typically the reference point is ground, which is at zero potential. The algebraic difference in potential (or voltage) between two points of a network. When isolated, like potential, the voltage at a point with respect to some reference such as ground (0 V).
Potential difference
Voltage
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Terminology
Voltage difference
The algebraic difference in voltage (or potential) between two points of the system. A voltage drop or rise is as the terminology would suggest. The force that establishes the flow of charge (or current) in a system due to the application of a difference in potential. This term in not applied that often in todays literature, but is associated primarily with sources of energy.
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dc Voltage Sources
Symbol for a dc voltage source dc stands for direct current Unidirectional flow of charge Categories of sources
Batteries
Batteries
Alkaline and lithium-iodine primary cells Lead-acid secondary cell Nickel-cadmium secondary cell Nickel-hydrogen and nickel-metal hydride secondary cells Solar cell
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Ampere-Hour Rating
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Ampere-Hour Rating
The capacity of a dc battery decreases with an increase in current demand. The capacity of a dc battery decreases at relatively (compared to room temperature) low and high temperatures. The terminal voltage of a dc battery decreases with the length of the discharge time at a particular drain current.
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Example
Determine the capacity in Ampere-hours and life in minutes for an Energizer D cell if the discharge current is 450 mA. Life = 10.75 A-hr / 450 mA = 23.889 hr = 1,433.333 min
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Example
At what temperature will the A-hr rating of this cell be 90%? 90% (18.2 A-hr) = 16.38 A-hr 40F (4.444C) 110F (43.333C)
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Generators
Applied torque of some external source of mechanical power Terminal voltage usually 120 V or 240 V
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Power Supplies
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dc Current Sources
Note: dc voltage sources (ideally) provide a constant level of voltage over time. dc current sources provide a constant level of current over time. The current source will supply, ideally, a fixed current to an electrical/electronic system even though there may be variations in the terminal voltage as determined by the system.
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