RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MODULE 3 – PART A
DESIGN STRATEGIES
 RESEARCH DESIGN
 MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS
 SCALING DESIGN
 SAMPLING DESIGN
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
What is Research Design?
 Activity- & time-based plan
 Based on research question
 Guides selection of sources and
types of information
 Framework for specifying the
relationships among the study
variables
 Blueprint that outlines each
procedure from the hypothesis to
the analysis
CLASSIFICATIONS
OF DESIGNS
 A. CRYSTALLISATION
OF
RESEARCH QUESTION

EXPLORATORY STUDIES

FORMAL STUDIES
3.1 EXPLORATORY STUDIES
 Exploratory study is usually to develop
hypotheses or questions for further
research

 Formal study is to test the hypotheses or

answer the research questions posed
B. METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
 Monitoring, which includes
observational studies

 Interrogation / Communication
studies
C. POWER TO PRODUCE
EFFECTS
 In an experiment, the researcher
attempts to control and / or manipulate
the variables in the study

 In an ex post facto design, the

researcher has no control over the
variables; they can only report what has
happened
D. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
 Descriptive study tries to explain
relationships among variables

 Causal study is how one variable

produces changes in another
E. THE TIME DIMENSION
 Cross-sectional studies are carried out
once and represent a snapshot of one
point in time

 Longitudinal studies are repeated over

an extended period
F. THE TOPICAL SCOPE
(Breadth & Depth)
 Statistical studies attempt to capture a
population’s characteristics by making
inferences from a sample’s
characteristics

 Case studies place more emphasis on

a full contextual analysis of fewer
events or conditions and their
interrelations
G. THE RESEARCH
ENVIRONMENT
 Field conditions

 Laboratory conditions

 Simulations
H. PARTICIPANT’S
PERCEPTIONS
 Usefulness of a design may be
reduced when people in the study
perceive that research is being
conducted

 Participants’ perceptions influence

the outcomes of the research
Why do Exploratory Studies?
Exploration is particularly useful
when researchers lack a clear idea
of the problems
Data Collection Techniques
 Qualitative techniques

 Secondary data

 Focus groups

 Two-stage design
3.2 QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES
 In-depth interviews (Laddering ***)
 Observation
 Films, photographs, videotapes
 Projective techniques & Pyschological
testing
 Case studies
 Street ethnography
 Elite / Expert interviews
 Document analysis
 Proxemics and Kinesics
 Hidden issue questioning ***
 Symbolic analysis ***
 PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES ***
 Association techniques (Word)
 Completion techniques (Sentence,
Story)
 Construction technique (Picture
response, Cartoons)
 Expressive Techniques (Role playing,
Third-person)
3.3 SECONDARY DATA
ANALYSIS ***
 Internal
 Databases
 External
 Published Materials
 Computerised Databases
 Syndicated services
Published External
Sources ***
 Guides
 Directories
 Indexes
 Non-Governmental Statistical Data
 Government Sources – Census
 Other Government Publications
 Books, Booklets, Monographs, Handbooks
 Periodicals & Dailies
 Brochures, Pamphlets
Computerised Databases
***
 Online, Internet & Offline
 Bibliographic databases
 Numeric databases
 Full-text databases
 Directory databases
 Special-purpose databases
Syndicated Sources ***

 Survey Reports
 Purchase panels
 Media panels
 Scanner Volume Tracking Data
 Audit Services
 Industrial Product Syndicated
Services
 Computer mapping (Thematic maps)
3.4 EXPERIENCE SURVEY
 What is being done?
 Past? Success?
 Any Change?
 Catalysts?
 Decision process?
 Costs involved?
 Who will assist?
 Priority areas?
 Representatives of different
positions
 “Pure” Cases
 Individuals in transition
 Deviants / isolates
 Newcomers
 Marginal / Peripheral individuals
3.5 FOCUS GROUP
 Homogeneity
 Specific Topic
 6-10 respondents
 Telephone F. C.
 Online F. C.
 Videoconferencing F. C.
 Content Analysis
 Advantages?
 Limitations?
 Two-way F. C. ****
 Dual-Moderator F. C. ***
Advantages of F. C. ***
 Synergy
 Snowballing
 Stimulation
 Security
 Spontaneity
 Serendipity
 Scientific scrutiny
 Speed
Disadvantages of F. C. ***

 Misuse
 Misjudge
 Moderation
 Messy
 Misrepresentation
3.6 TWO STAGE DESIGN
 Stage 1:
Clearly define the research
question

 Stage 2:
Developing the research
design.
3.7 DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
 Descriptions of phenomena
(Who, what, when, where, how?)
 Estimates of proportions of a
population that have characteristics
 Discovery of associations among
different variables (correlational
study)
3.8 CAUSAL STUDIES
 Causation
 The essential element of causation is
A “produces” B

or
A “forces” B to occur
Causal Study
Relationships
 Symmetrical

 Reciprocal

 Asymmetrical
Some Terms:
 Stimulus: Event or Force.
 Property: Enduring characteristic that
does not depend on circumstances for
its activation.
 Disposition: Tendency to respond in a
certain way.
 Behaviour: An action.
Asymmetrical Relationships

 Stimulus-Response
 Property-Disposition
 Disposition-Behavior
 Property-Behavior
Stimulus-Response

 Anevent or change results in a

response from some subject

 Example: An increase in price

will result in fewer units sold.
Property-Disposition

 Anexisting property causes a

disposition
 Example:Gender and Attitudes
towards social issues.
Disposition-Behaviour
A disposition causes a
specific behaviour

 Example:Job Satisfaction
and Productivity.
 Property-Behaviour
 Anexisting property causes a
specific behaviour

 Example: Age and participation

in sports.
Achieving the Ideal Experimental
Design
 Control

Random Assignment

Matching

 Randomization

Manipulation and control of variables

 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERRORS
***

Random Sampling Error

Non-Sampling Error

Non-Response Error Response Error

Researcher Errors
Respondent Errors
Interviewer Errors
Researcher Errors ***

 Surrogate Information Error

 Measurement Error
 Population Definition Error
 Sampling Frame Error
 Data Analysis Error
Interviewer Errors ***

 Respondent Selection Error

 Questioning Error
 Recording Error
 Cheating Error
 Respondent Errors ***

 Inability Error
 Unwillingness Error