MEASURES OF

ASSOCIATION

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 Bivariate Correlation vs.
Nonparametric Measures of
Association
 Parametric correlation requires two
continuous variables measured on an
interval or ratio scale
 The coefficient does not distinguish
between independent and dependent
variables

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 Bivariate Correlation Analysis
Pearson correlation coefficient
• r symbolized the coefficient's estimate of
linear association based on sampling data
• Correlation coefficients reveal the magnitude
and direction of relationships
• Coefficient’s sign (+ or -) signifies the
direction of the relationship
 Assumptions of r
Linearity
3 Bivariate normal distribution
 Bivariate Correlation Analysis
Scatterplots
• Provide a means for visual inspection of data
• the direction of a relationship
• the shape of a relationship
• the magnitude of a relationship
(with practice)

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 Interpretation of Coefficients
 Relationship does not imply causation
 Statistical significance does not imply a
relationship is practically meaningful

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 Interpretation of Coefficients
 Suggests alternate explanations for
correlation results
• X causes Y. . . or
• Y causes X . . . or
• X & Y are activated by one or more other
variables . . . or
• X & Y influence each other reciprocally

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 Interpretation of Coefficients
 Artifact
Correlations
 Goodness of fit

• F test
• Coefficient of determination
• Correlation matrix
• used to display coefficients for more than
two variables

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 Bivariate Linear Regression
 Used to make simple and multiple
predictions
 Regression coefficients

• Slope
• Intercept
 Error
term
 Method of least squares

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 Interpreting Linear Regression
• Residuals
• what remains after the line is fit or (Y -Y )
i i

 Prediction and confidence bands

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 Interpreting Linear Regression
 Goodness of fit
• Zero slope
• Y completely unrelated to X and no systematic
pattern is evident
• constant values of Y for every value of X
• data are related, but represented by a nonlinear
function

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 Nonparametric Measures of
Association
 Measures for nominal data
• When there is no relationship at all, coefficient
is 0
• When there is complete dependency, the
coefficient displays unity or 1

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 Nonparametric Measures of
Association
 Chi-square based measure
• Phi
• Cramer’s V
• Contingency coefficient of C
 Proportional reduction in error (PRE)
• Lambda
• Tau
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 Characteristics of Ordinal Data
 Concordant- subject who ranks higher on
one variable also ranks higher on the
other variable
 Discordant- subject who ranks higher on
one variable ranks lower on the other
variable

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 Measures for Ordinal Data
 No assumption of bivariate normal
distribution
 Most based on concordant/discordant
pairs
 Values range from +1.0 to -1.0

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 Measures for Ordinal Data
 Tests

• Gamma
• Somer’s d
• Spearman’s rho
• Kendall’s tau b
• Kendall’s tau c

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