Chapter 2

Protocols and Architecture

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 Need For Protocol Architecture
• E.g. File transfer
– Source must activate comms. Path or inform
network of destination
– Source must check destination is prepared to
receive
– File transfer application on source must check
destination file management system will accept
and store file for his user
– May need file format translation
• Task broken into subtasks
• Implemented separately in layers in stack
• Functions needed in both systems
• Peer layers communicate 2
 Key Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
– Data formats
– Signal levels
• Semantics
– Control information
– Error handling
• Timing
– Speed matching
– Sequencing 3
 Protocol Architecture
• Task of communication broken up into
modules
• For example file transfer could use three
modules
– File transfer application
– Communication service module
– Network access module

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Simplified File Transfer
Architecture

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 A Three Layer Model
• Network Access Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer

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Contd…
Network Access Layer
• Exchange of data between the computer
and the network
• Sending computer provides address of
destination
• May invoke levels of service
• Dependent on type of network used (LAN,
packet switched etc.)

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 Contd…
• Transport Layer :
• Reliable data exchange
• Independent of network being used
• Independent of application

• Application Layer :
• Support for different user applications
• e.g. e-mail, file transfer

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Protocol Architectures and
Networks

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 Addressing Requirements
• Two levels of addressing required
• Each computer needs unique network
address
• Each application on a (multi-tasking)
computer needs a unique address within
the computer
– The service access point or SAP
– The port on TCP/IP stacks

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Protocols in Simplified
Architecture

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 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
• PDU = actual data + control information
• At each layer, protocols are used to
communicate
• Control information is added to user data
at each layer
• Transport layer may fragment user data
• Each fragment has a transport header
added
– Destination SAP
– Sequence number
– Error detection code
• This gives a transport protocol data unit 12
Protocol Data Units

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 Network PDU
• Adds network header
– network address for destination computer
– Facilities requests

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Operation of a Protocol
Architecture

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 Standardized Protocol Architectures
• Required for devices to communicate
• Vendors have more marketable products
• Customers can insist on standards based
equipment
• Two standards:
– OSI Reference model
• Never lived up to early promises
– TCP/IP protocol suite
• Most widely used
• Also: IBM Systems Network Architecture
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(SNA)
 OSI
• Open Systems Interconnection
• Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• Seven layers
• A theoretical system delivered too late!
• TCP/IP is the de facto standard

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 OSI - The Model
• A layer model
• Each layer performs a subset of the
required communication functions
• Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions
• Each layer provides services to the next
higher layer
• Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers 18
OSI Layers

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The OSI Environment

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OSI as Framework for
Standardization

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Layer Specific Standards

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 Elements of Standardization
• Protocol specification
– Operates between the same layer on two
systems
– May involve different operating system
– Protocol specification must be precise
• Format of data units
• Semantics of all fields
• allowable sequence of PCUs
• Service definition
– Functional description of what is provided
• Addressing
– Referenced by SAPs 23
 Service Primitives and
Parameters
• Services between adjacent layers
expressed in terms of primitives and
parameters
• Primitives specify function to be performed
• Parameters pass data and control info

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 Primitive Types
REQUEST A primitive issued by a service user to
invoke some service and to pass the
parameters needed to specify fully the
requested service
INDICATION A primitive issued by a service provider
either to:
indicate that a procedure has been
invoked by the peer service user on the
connection and to provide the associated
parameters, or
notify the service user of a provider-
initiated action
RESPONSE A primitive issued by a service user to 25
acknowledge or complete some procedure
Timing Sequence for Service
Primitives

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 OSI Layers (1)
• Physical
– Physical interface between devices
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Functional
• Procedural
• Data Link
– Means of activating, maintaining and
deactivating a reliable link
– Error detection and control
– Higher layers may assume error free 27
Physical Layer

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Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer Example

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 OSI Layers (2)
• Network
– Transport of information
– Higher layers do not need to know about underlying
technology
– Not needed on direct links
• Transport
– Exchange of data between end systems
– Error free
– In sequence
– No losses
– No duplicates 31

–
Network Layer

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Network Layer Example

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Network Layer Example

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Transport Layer

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Transport Layer Example

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Transport
Layer
Example

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 OSI Layers (3)
• Session
– Control of dialogues between applications
– Dialogue discipline
– Grouping
– Recovery
• Presentation
– Data formats and coding
– Data compression
– Encryption
• Application 38

–
Session Layer

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Presentation Layer

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Application Layer

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Summary of Layer Functions

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 TCP/IP Layers
• 5 independent layers
2. Physical
3. Network access
4. Internet
5. Transport / host-host
6. Application

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 1.Physical layer

• Covers the interface b/w a data trans.device &

Trans.medium or a nw

• Is concerned with specifying the characteristics

of the trans.medium, nature of the signals(what
encoding tech is used),data rate(duration of a
bit), topology(star,ring,mesh,bus) of the nw &
related matters(point-point link/multipoint links)

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Contd…
 Computer network
connects two or more
autonomous computers.

 The computers can be

geographically located
anywhere.
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Introduction to Computer Networks

Contd…
 The network topology
defines the way in
which computers,
printers, and other
devices are connected.
A network topology
describes the layout of
the wire and devices as
well as the paths used
by data transmissions.

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Bus Topology
Commonly referred to
as a linear bus, all the
devices on a bus
topology are connected
by one single cable.

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Introduction to Computer Networks

Star & Tree Topology

The star topology is the most

commonly used architecture in
Ethernet LANs.
When installed, the star
topology resembles spokes in
a bicycle wheel.
Larger networks use the
extended star topology also
called tree topology. When
used with network devices that
filter frames or packets, like
bridges, switches, and routers,
this topology significantly
reduces the traffic on the wires
by sending packets only to the 48
wires of the destination host.
 Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node
wants to transmit data, it adds the
data as well as the destination
address to the frame.
The frame then continues around
the ring until it finds the
destination node, which takes the
data out of the frame.
Single ring – All the devices on
the network share a single cable
Dual ring – The dual ring topology
allows data to be sent in both
directions. 49
 Mesh Topology
The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other
for redundancy and
fault tolerance.
It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and
for mission critical
networks like those
used by banks and
financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive
and difficult. 50
 Applications
 E-mail
 Searchable Data (Web Sites)
 E-Commerce
 News Groups
 Internet Telephony (VoIP)
 Video Conferencing
 Chat Groups
 Instant Messengers
 Internet Radio

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 2.Network access layer
• Is concerned with the xchange of data b/w an
endsystem(server,workstation) & the nw to
which it is attached
• Sender must invoke certain services like priority
& other switching technologies
• s/w at this layer depends upon the nw used
• For Lans (ethernet), & for circuit,packet
switching(frame relay) is used
• Is concerned with access to & routing data
across a nw for 2 endsystems attached to the
same nw
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 3.Internet layer
• When 2 devices are attached to diff nws,
procedures are needed to allow data to traverse
across multiple interconnected nws
• This is the function of Internet layer
• IP(internet protocol) is used at this layer to
provide the routing func across multiple nw
• This protocol is not only implemented in end
systems but also in routers
• A router is a processor that connects 2 nws & its
primary func is to relay data from one nw to the
other on its route from source to dest
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 4.Transport layer

• Collect the mechanisms into a common

layer shared by all applications
• Reliable trans.of the data

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 5.Application layer
• Contains the logic needed to support
various user appns
• FTP,mail transfer etc

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OSI vs TCP/IP

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OSI v TCP/IP

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 TCP
• Usual transport layer is Transmission Control
Protocol
– Reliable connection to transfer the data b/w appns
• Connection
– Is simply a temporary logical association between 2
entities in different systems
• TCP PDU
– Called TCP segment
– Includes source and destination port (c.f. SAP)
• Identify respective users (applications)
• Connection refers to pair of ports
• TCP tracks segments between entities on each
connection 58
 UDP
• Alternative to TCP is User Datagram
Protocol
• Not guaranteed delivery
• No preservation of sequence
• No protection against duplication
• Minimum overhead-enables a proc to
send msgs to other proc with a min.of
protocol mechanism
• Adds a port addressing capability to IP
• Ex: SNMP(simple nw management
protocol)
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 Operation of TCP & IP
• Total comm.system may consist of multiple nws
, the constituent nw are subnetworks
• Ethernet can be used to connect a computer to a
subnetwork which enables the host to send data
across the subnetwork, to a router that will
forward the data
• IP is implemented in all endsystems & routers
that acts as a relay to move a block of data from
one host thru 1/m routers to another host
• TCP is also implemented in endsystems,it keeps
track of the blocks to assure that all are
delivered reliably to the appropriate appn
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TCP/IP Concepts

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 Addressing level
• Level in architecture at which entity is
named
• Unique address for each end system
(computer) and router
• Network level address
– IP or internet address (TCP/IP)
– Network service access point or NSAP (OSI)
• Process within the system
– Port number (TCP/IP)
– Service access point or SAP (OSI)
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 Trace of Simple Operation
• Process associated with port 1 in host A
sends message to port 2 in host B
• Process at A hands down message to
TCP to send to port 2
• TCP hands down to IP to send to host B
• IP hands down to network layer (e.g.
Ethernet) to send to router J
• Generates a set of encapsulated PDUs
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PDUs in TCP/IP

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 Example Header Information

• Destination port

• Sequence number

• Checksum-sending TCP segment includes a code that is

a func of the contents of the remainder of the segment.

The receiver TCP performs the same calculation &

compares the result with the incoming code

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Some Protocols in TCP/IP Suite

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 TCP/IP applications
• SMTP(Simple mail transfer protocol)
• FTP
• TELNET

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