INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION ENGINEER TRAINING

INDUSTRIAL MOTOR Day 3

Contents
Single Line Diagram (Practical Based)
Power Circuit Diagram Control Circuit Diagram

Motor protection Motor control circuit testing Industrial Based Motor Control Circuits(practical)
Inching Control Circuit Diagram Remote Start Stop Diagram Automatic Reverse Forward Control Circuit Diagram

Contents
Rectification Inverter Converter Vs Inverter Powering the motor Regeneration Dynamic Brake Unit or Chopper Handling Regenerative Energy

Single Line Diagram

Actually , the Electrical systems are so complex that a complete conventional diagram showing all the connections is impractical. Yet, it is desirable, that there is some concise way of communicating the basic arrangement of Electrical system components. This is done by using Single Line Diagrams (SLD). SLDs are also called One Line Diagrams.

Single Line Diagram

A one-line diagram that uses single lines and graphic symbols to indicate the path and components of an electrical circuit. One-line diagrams are used when information about a circuit is required but detail of the actual wire connections and operation of the circuit are not.

The amount of information included in an SLD depends on the purpose for which the diagram is used. For example, if the SLD is used in initial stages of designing a substation, then all major equipment will be included in the diagram major equipment being transformers, breakers, disconnects and buses. There is no need to include instrument transformers or protection and metering devices.

Graphical Symbol For Single Line Diagram

Line Diagrams
A line (ladder) diagram is a diagram that shows the logic of an electrical circuit or system using standard symbols. A line diagram is used to show the relationship between circuits and their components but not the actual location of the components. Line diagrams provide a fast, easy understanding of the connections and use of components.

Motor protection

11

Motor Protection
Electrical motors are constructed in many physical sizes. Typically lager motor , more horse power it will produce. Larger HP motors are designed to move heavy loads and smaller HP power motors are intended for lighter loads.

12

Motor Protection

There are certain conditions that cause excessive current to flow through the motor, control circuitry and their conductors. These conditions include : 1. short circuit 2. single phasing 3. overloading. So it is important to protect a motor from excessive current to avoid damage, fire. Pieces of the motor breaking a part and hurting someone.

Motor Protection
These devices are used in motor starter to protect motor. 1. Fuses 2. overload 3. thermal protector. FUSES A fuse prevent the motor or the motor starter control circuitry from being damage and are designed to carry the inrush of high current from power lines when the motor starts. However when there is a dramatic and sudden increase the fuse must open very quickly.

Motor Protection
Fuses are designed for excessive current condition such as: 1. short circuit 2. single phasing during start up 3. a ground fault condition.

Motor Protection
Overload heater protects the motor from excessive of heat and damage. Excessive heat can deteriorate the insulation or create a sort circuit that cause a fire. Condition that can cause a motor to become hot are 1. A prolonged overload means the motor is driving a load that is too large, for an extended period of time. 2. Failure to start because a broken part prevent the motor or its load from turning

Motor Protection
The Overload Device consists of a metal alloy that conducts current between two terminal called a solder pot, this device holds a ratchet wheel in place.

If the current becomes excessive over a sustained period of time, the alloy melt, and the ratchet turns and allows upward pressure of the string, which causes the normally closed(N.C. )contacts on the bottom to open.

Motor Protection
A thermal protector prevent the motor from being damage by becoming too hot. Many motors that are 1HP or less have thermal protector located inside the motor housing.

Condition that can cause a motor to become hot are 1. A prolonged overload means the motor is driving a load that is too large, for an extended period of time. 2. Failure to start because a broken part prevent the motor or its load from turning

Motor Protection
The protector consist of two contacts that are normally closed by a bimetallic strip. This strip makes a series connection as it passes current from the power source to the motor windings.

Motor Protection
Thermal protector should trip only after a certain amount of excessive current drawn by the motor , not when a sudden and temporary inrush of current flows such as during motor startup.

20

Motor Protection
Sizing the thermal protector: The size of thermal protector is based on tripping the motor by opening the circuit when the current flows reaches a certain level such as : 1. The rated current value that the motor uses to run at full load 2. Max temp at which the motor can operate .

Based on the nameplate information a simple mathematical calculation is made using a numerically value listed after the letter A (referring to amp) as a reference. For this motor amperage value is 6.25 A 6.25 * 1.25 = 7.8125 The service factor refers to how much beyond the horse power rating the motor can run without damage.

Motor control circuit testing

22

Motor Control Circuit Testing

23

RECTIFICATION

AC CHARACTERISTICS SINGLE PHASE

The figure below depicts an AC voltage waveform. Meaning the signal rises and falls with time and has both a positive and negative polarity or half cycle.
V pk One Cycle | | | | | |
Positive Half Cycle

Negative Half Cycle

A typical voltage found in a common outlet is 110 VAC. The value of the 110 is actually the RMS value. The peak voltage (Vpk) value of the sine wave is what an Oscope would read. AC is reported as a positive number even though the potential alternates.

One cycle of power is defined as the time period for an AC signal to make one positive and one negative rise and fall.
A half cycle can be described as either the positive or negative part of the wave.
25

BASIC AC FORMULAS & DEFINATION

Pk = Peak Value, is the maximum value or point along a voltage or current sine wave. The peak value applies to either the positive or negative half cycle. Vpk = 1.414 x RMS or x RMS

RMS = Root mean square, also known as the effective value is the most common method of defining the amount of a sine wave voltage or current. This is done by stating its value at 45 degrees which is 70.7% of the peak value. Electrical degrees are explained further on the next page.
RMS = Vpk x .707 or Vpk /

Application Example: 1) A Digital meter is used to measure the AC voltage of a standard outlet. The meter reads 110vac. Is this the peak value or the RMS value?

The digital meter shows the RMS value.

2) What is the peak value? Vpk = 1.414 x RMS = 1.414 x 110 = 155.54
26

ELECTRICAL DEGREES
The time scale is sometimes marked in electrical degrees. There are 360 electrical degrees in one cycle of power.

0 360

The start of a sine wave is said to be its zero degree point.

While the end of the complete cycle of power is the 360 degree point.

27

MEASURING FREQUENCY & TIME

Problem 1: Frequency is defined as the inverse of the period or time. The formula to calculate the frequency of the sine wave is:
F = 1/T

If the time is 20 mS, what is the frequency of the sine wave? F=1/.020 =50Hz

Where T = the time for one cycle of power to be completed in seconds (S). T=1/60
The formula to calculate time for one cycle of power is:
T = 1/F
Where F = the frequency of the sine wave in Hertz (Hz).

=.0166 or 16.6mS Problem 2: If the Frequency is 60 Hz, what is the period of the sine wave?
28

CONVERTING AC TO DC
Now that we discussed AC, lets convert AC to Direct Current or DC. This can be accomplished by using Diodes or SCRs.

A diode is a two terminal device that normally allows current to flow in only one direction. It acts like a an electronic light switch it is either on (conducting) or off (not conducting). It can even be compared to a mechanical check valve allowing fluid to flow only in one direction.

The diode has a positive and negative terminal. The Anode is (+) and the Cathode is (-). Anode (+) Cathode (-)
29

RULES FOR DIODE CONDUCTION

1) The diode must be forward biased to conduct. Forward biased means that the electrical potential applied to the Anode is more positive than that applied to the Cathode.

Anode (+)

Cathode (-)

Example: 1) 2) 3) 4)

2) The potential on the anode must be enough to break down the junction of the diode for conduction to occur. The break down point for a silicon diode is .7v, for germanium it is .3v

Would the diode conduct & why?

Anode +10v +5v -4.5v -10v

Cathode 0v +4.5v +3v +10v

1) Yes, the anode is positive with respect to the cathode and the anode is more than .7v greater than the cathode. 2) The diode is forward biased but would only conduct if made from germainum because the anode is only .5v greater than the cathode. 3 &4) No, both are reverse biased and would not conduct. A +3v is greater than -4.5v, & +10v is greater than -10v.
30

CURRENT FLOW
There are two accepted theories that explain how current flows in a circuit. Just remember that whatever theory you choose to follow, the same rules for biasing & conduction apply to both theories

Conventional Flow
Conventional flow often referred to as hole flow, states that current flows from the positive potential toward the negative potential. This theory is often taught in the military and governmental divisions.

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Current Flow

Electron Flow
Electron flow is most commonly taught in the college or university. This indicated that the negatively charged electron is attracted or pulled toward the positively charged anode. Meaning electrons flow from the Cathode to the Anode.

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Current Flow
31

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

110v RMS AC Input or 155.54 Vpk

+ -

x +-

Resulting DC Output

No conduction

When the positive half cycle of the AC signal is applied to the anode of D1, the diode is forward biased and conducts. The current flow is shown using conventional flow theory When the negative half cycle of the AC signal is applied to the anode of D1, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct.

Notice that when half wave rectification is used, only half the AC signal gets to the load (VL).

The formula to convert AC to DC in a half wave rectifier using the o-scope peak value is: Vdc Average = Vpk x .318 =155.54 x .318 = 49.46 Note: above is not an RMS value. It is the average rise & fall of a sine wave but for only one half of the cycle. RMS Equivalent: Vdc RMS = (Vpk x .707)/2 = 54.98
32

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION w/o ISOLATION

110v RMS AC Input or 155.54 Vpk

+ +

X +

X-

Resulting DC Output

- + X +

Both half cycles are rectified to DC with full wave rectification

Calculating DC using: Oscope:

Vdc Average = Vpk x .636

Notice that during the positive half cycle D1 & D4 are forward biased while D2 & D3 are reverse biased. Current flow is shown using conventional flow theory from (+) to (-)

= 155.54 x .636 = 98.92 RMS Equivalent: Vdc RMS = Vpk x .707 = 110 Note: If using a digital meter we would read the RMS value.
33

During the negative half cycle, D2 & D3 are forward biased while D1 & D4 are reverse biased. Notice that the current flow through the load remains in the same direction for either half cycle. This means both half cycles are now positive.

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION w/o ISOLATION

Using a center tapped transformer, we can isolate the primary from the secondary circuits. This technique is often used to step the voltage down as shown below. 2:1 X + DC Signal Across the Load 311.08 v peak AC Input +
+

- +

Since this transformers schematic does not show a phasing dot on the secondary, we know that the secondary signal is inverted from that of the primary. This means when the positive half cycle is at the top of the primary side of the transformer, it is coupled across to the bottom part of the secondary. D2 would then be forward biased while D1 is reverse biased. When the negative half cycle is at the top of the primary side of the transformer, D1 becomes forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.

The 311 volt input was changed through the 2:1 transformer. The formula for converting AC to DC remains the same for any type of full wave rectifier. So what is the DC RMS voltage across the load?
311.08pk/2= 155.54pk 155.54pk x .707 = 110 RMS 34

DIODE TESTING
While the schematic symbol of the diode always remains the same, the actual packaging of the diode varies. Packaging can range from circuit board mount to hockey puck style. In all cases. testing of the diode is best performed when the device is removed or isolated from the circuit. Digital Meter
When using a digital meter, set the meter to diode check and place the positive meter lead on the anode and the negative meter lead on the cathode. This forward biases the diode using the meters battery power. The .707 indicates the voltage drop across a silicon type diode. When the meter leads are reversed, a good diode will stop conducting and read an over load.

Analog Meter
When using an analog meter, set the meter to ohms check using the x1 scale. Place the positive meter lead on the anode and the negative meter lead on the cathode. This forward biases the diode and will cause the meter to deflect toward a small resistance reading. When the meter leads are reversed, the indication should change to near infinity.
35

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

SCRS

The SCR is a three terminal device that normally allows current to flow in only one direction. It requires proper biasing and a gate pulse to activate or conduct.

Rules of Operation:
The SCR must be forward biased. The Anode is positive with respect to the cathode. The SCR must receive a positive gate pulse when forward biased to begin conduction. The gate pulse is only needed to start the conduction, it is not required to keep conduction. The SCR must reach a minimum holding current to break down the junction (.7v for silicon & .3v for germanium). Once turned on, the SCR will not turn off until reverse biased or the current drops below the minimum level.

Gate (+) Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Gate (+) Anode (+) Cathode (-)

36

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION w/o SCRS

The advantage of using SCRs over Diodes in rectification is that they allow us to control the amount of conduction during each half cycle by delaying the gate pulse. Diodes either conduct full on or they are off. An SCR is like a dimmer switch, they are either on or off when biased a certain way but when on, the amount of conduction time or intensity can be controlled. The gate of the SCR serves the same function as adjusting a dimmer switch. (+) SCR1 SCR3
(+) Gate

SCR4

(+)
SCR2

(-)

The diagram above depicts a full wave bridge rectifier using SCRs. When we gate the SCRs full on or early in the half cycle, we would see the same DC output results that a diode would provide. The arrows above only show the positive half cycle of operation. Keep in mind the SCR acts just like the diode did in the earlier slides but it requires a gate signal when forward biased to conduct.
37

SCR FIRING ANGLES

Do you remember the earlier slide on electrical degrees? You need that information to understand SCR firing angles. The displayed degrees are for the positive half cycle only. Caution, the 180 degree point for the positive half cycle is actually the zero degree point for the negative half cycle.
360
0 180

If a positive gate signal occurs at the earliest time in the half cycle, the SCRs have a zero degree firing angle. A zero degree firing angle allows the SCR to conduct for the entire half cycle and provides a maximum DC output. When the next half cycle begins, the SCR becomes reverse biased and turns off.

90 0
270

If a positive gate signal occurs later in the half cycle, the SCR can conduct for the remaining time of that half cycle then it becomes reverse biased and turns off. The resulting DC power is reduced to some number based on the time the gate is turned on in that half cycle.

38

SCR TESTING
Digital Meter
When using a digital meter, set the meter to diode check and place the positive meter lead on the anode and the negative meter lead on the cathode. This forward biases the SCR using the meters battery power but you need to gate the SCR for it to conduct. The meter should read OL until you gate the SCR by jumping the anode to the gate lead, then it will read .707 which is the voltage drop across a silicon type SCR. When in a circuit, the SCR would continue to conduct when the gate is removed. However, the power in a digital meter is not strong enough to maintain conduction, when the gate is removed. The SCR should read OL when reverse biased even if you gate the SCR.

Analog Meter
When using an analog meter, set the meter to ohms check using the x1 scale. Place the positive meter lead on the anode and the negative meter lead on the cathode. This forward biases the SCR but you need to gate the SCR for it to conduct by jumping the anode to the gate lead. Once gated it will cause the meter to deflect toward a small resistance reading. When the meter leads are reversed, the indication should change to near infinity even if you gate the SCR.
39

THREE PHASE AC
Earlier we discussed electrical degrees in a single phase ac waveform. For ease of discussion, our zero degree point intersected with the zero volt line on the graph. We know that the start of the cycle can be selected arbitrarily anywhere but always ends 360 degrees later. When discussing three phases, it is easiest to place the zero degree point where two cycles intersect. The zero degree point for phase B occurs 120 degrees after phase A because each phase is 120 degrees out of phase with each other. One cycle of three phase power is based on the start and end of only one phase. One Cycle of Power
0 degree point for phase A 360 degree point for phase A

40

THREE PHASE AC
Notice how each phase is most positive for 120 degrees during one cycle of three phase power. The same is true for the negative half cycle.
One Cycle of Power
120 120 120

Pt of Commutation

At the time in which two phases intersect, both phases have the same potential. This instant in time is a fraction of one cycle of power. This is important when converting AC to DC and is called the natural point of commutation in three phase bridge rectifiers. The natural point of commutation is the point when one diode turns on and another other turns off because the biasing naturally caused it.
41

THREE PHASE BRIGE RECTIFICATION

A three phase bridge rectifier is depicted below. Notice that the positive diodes are across the top while the negative diodes are along the bottom of the bridge. Text books always label the positive and negative diodes as shown for each of the three phases of AC power. A three phase bridge rectifier is also known as a converter.
Positive Diodes

1
In a three phase AC power system, each phase is 120 degrees apart. A B C 4

6
Negative Diodes

Note: that there is one positive and one negative diode for each phase of power. Only one of the individual diodes within that phase can conduct at a given period of time & only two diodes will be conducting at the same time. Its as simple as counting to six, lets see why on the next slide.

42

THREE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFICATION

Fill in the chart below using the diagrams provided. T1 through T8 represent frozen moments in time, look at the phases along each time to see which one is most positive and negative. Then apply what you know about the phases to the bridge and figure out which diodes are conducting. It may take a few minutes to figure this out, so go slow.

Most Positve Phase T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

C A A B B C C

Most Negative Phase "+" Diode Conducting "-" Diode Conducting Turn "On" Order
B B C C A A B 5 1 1 3 3 5 5 6 6 2 2 4 4 6
Skip

1 2 3 4 5 6

43

CHART SUMMARY
Most Positve Phase T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
C A A B B C C

Most Negative Phase "+" Diode Conducting "-" Diode Conducting Turn "On" Order
B B C C A A B 5 1 1 3 3 5 5 6 6 2 2 4 4 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

From the chart and previous graph, you can see that each phase is the most positive for 120 degrees, its positive diode splits conduction time (60 degrees) with each negative diode of the other two phases. In addition, each phase is also the most negative phase for 120 degrees, its negative diode splits conduction time (60 degrees) with each positive diode of the other two phases. The turn on order of the diode bridge is as simple as counting to six and then starting all over again.
44

The DC waveform illustrates the voltage across the load when using a three phase SCR or diode bridge converter. Each hump also represents two diodes conducting for 60 degrees. Six humps of 60 degrees each equals one complete electrical cycle of power.

3 phase AC input to the converter

| |

| |

|
| | | One 360 Cycle of Power 6&1 2&3 4&5 | DC output 5&6 | 1&2
| 60 | | |

|
| | |

|
5&6 |

3&4

45

WHERE IS THE CONVERTER USED IN A DRIVE

3 phase AC to the left of the picture enters the drive when the open set of contacts close allowing AC power to enter the SCR converter. This starts the pre-charge process. Since the converter is considered passive, it does not require any further control after pre-charge. When the drives control circuitry senses a start command, through a joystick, HIM or any other means, the inverter becomes operational and the motor turns. The converter rectifies AC Power into DC Power. DC is now applied to the Bus. This Bus voltage is filtered by a capacitor bank and applied to the inverter section of the drive.

3 phase AC

Encoder

Note: The other parts of the block diagram are explained in separate training modules. 46

INVERTER

INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVES

Upon completing the module on Inverters the student should be able to do the following:

Understand some of the different types of transistors, biasing & current flow through the transistors. Know what the inverter does in our drives & in general. Understand what PWM is, where it originates, & how it is applied to inverters. Understand how three phase AC power is created from DC & applied to a motor

48

TRANSISTORS
Enriching Skills

A transistor is a solid-state device using the element silicon or germanium. There are many types of transistors available in industrial applications but this training module will specifically cover bipolar junction transistors used as switching devices inside an inverter. Currently, we use IGBTs or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors within our drives inverter section. The transistors come in two types called NPN or PNP type transistors. Notice the arrow direction for the two types of transistors.

NPN Transistors
Collector Base Emitter

PNP Transistors
Collector Base Emitter

Standard Transistors

NPN IGBT
Collector Base Emitter Base

PNP IGBT
Collector

Emitter

IGBT Transistors

Notice the double line found on the base of the IGBT transistors. This is the symbol of an insulated gate, meaning that a junction or an electronic barrier separates the base from the rest of the transistor. This junction prevents leakage current through the base to the emitter or collector and ensures that 100% of the current flows through the emitter and collector. 49

RULES OF CONDUCTION ALL MUST BE TRUE!

The transistor is normally off, without any output current unless a forward bias voltage is applied in the base-emitter circuit. Biasing differs for NPN & PNP type transistors. In an NPN transistor, the base must be positive with respect to the emitter while the PNPs base is negative with respect to the emitter. The collector base junction is always reverse biased.
The forward bias voltage controlling the base current determines the amount of output current. This is exactly what the gate pulse on the SCR does. A maximum bias signal (full on) provides a maximum current output. The transistor provides infinitely variable control of conduction from off to full on. For the NPN transistor, the collector must be (+) with respect to the emitter when a (+) base signal is applied. For the PNP transistor, the collector must be (-) with respect to the emitter when a (-) base signal is applied.
(+) Collector (+) Base (-) Emitter (-) Base (+) Emitter (-) Collector

NPN IGBT

PNP IGBT

The silicone transistor requires a minimum of .7v difference between the base and emitter to conduct while the germanium transistor requires only a .3v difference. Transistors are almost always made from silicone. Germanium transistors are only used in special 50 applications.

APPLICATION
(+) Collector (+) Base

(-) Emitter

NPN IGBT

The following problems below describe a condition applied to the NPN transistor. Try and determine if the transistor would conduct or not and why. If you get any wrong, go back and review the rules before proceeding with this module.
1) No, not yet. The collector and emitter are properly biased but there is no base signal applied to it. Without the base signal the junction cant be broken down so current cant flow. 2) Maybe, the transistors emitter & collector are biased properly and base signal is also getting the proper signal. The difference in base to emitter voltage is only .5v. A silicone transistor would not conduct while the germanium transistor would. 3) No, the transistor is reverse biased. The collector is (-) with respect to the emitter. Receiving the proper base signal when reverse biased will not cause the transistor to conduct. 4) Yes, even though -5 volts is applied to the collector, it is still more positive with respect to the emitter. -5 is more positive than -10 so it is biased properly.
51

1) The collector has +10 volts applied to it and the emitter is tied to ground. Would the transistor conduct now? Why? 2) The collector has 10 volts and base has 5 volts applied to them, the emitter is at 4.5 volts. Would the transistor conduct now? Why? 3) The collector has -5 volts applied to it and the emitter is tied to ground. The transistor is receiving the proper base signal. Would the transistor conduct? Why? 4) The collector has -5 volts applied to it and the emitter has -10 volts applied to it. The base is receiving the proper signal. Would the transistor conduct? Why?

CURRENT FLOW
There are two accepted theories that explain how current flows in a circuit. Just remember that whatever theory you choose to follow, the same rules for biasing & conduction apply to both theories Conventional Flow NPN IGBT PNP IGBT
Conventional flow often referred to as hole flow, states that current flows from the positive potential toward the negative potential. This theory is often taught in the military and governmental divisions.
(+) Collector (+) Base

(-) Base (-) Emitter

(-) Collector

(+) Emitter

Electron Flow
Electron flow is most commonly taught in the college or university. This indicated that the negatively charged electron is attracted or pulled toward the positively charged leg of the transistor.. In the case of an NPN transistor electrons flow from the Emitter to the Collector.
(+) Base

NPN IGBT
(+) Collector

PNP IGBT
(-) Collector (-) Base

(-) Emitter

(+) Emitter

52

SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

3 phase AC to the left of the picture enters the drive when the open set of contacts close allowing AC power to enter the SCR converter. This starts the pre-charge process. Since the converter is considered passive, it does not require any further control after pre-charge. When the drives control circuitry senses a start command, through a joystick, HIM or any other means, the inverter becomes operational and the motor turns.

3 phase AC

Encoder

The converter rectifies AC Power into DC Power. DC is now applied to the Bus. This Bus voltage is filtered by a capacitor bank and applied to the inverter section of the drive.

Note: The other parts of the block diagram are explained in separate training modules. 53

TYPICAL THREE PHASE INVERTER

Note: There are six transistors and six diodes in the inverter section of the drive. The diodes are used during regeneration and are explained in another module. The (+) DC bus is connected to the transistors collector while the (-) DC bus is connected to the emitter. What is connected to the Base?
Positive DC Bus Line

T1 T2 T3

Negative DC Bus Line

So what does the inverter do?

The output of the gate driver circuit board inside the drive is connected to the gate of each transistor. Each transistor gets an independent signal from the gate driver at different time intervals. The transistor turns on conducts when a gate signal is applied and turns off when the gate signal is removed. In other words, the gate driver turns the transistors on and off in a specific order.

The transistors within the inverter take a relatively constant DC from the Bus, and creates a three phase PWM pulse width modulated waveform going to each terminal of the AC motor. Note: A DC voltage is felt at motor the terminals (T1, T2, & T3) but the current waveform resembles an AC sine wave. The next few pages will explain this further. In short, the inverter turns DC into AC.
54

SINE WEIGHTED PWM

Allen-Bradley uses what is known as Sine Weighted PWM. This process is done by the circuitry inside the drive as shown below.

Triangle Generator

Modulation Generator

The triangular signal is the carrier or switching frequency of the inverter. The modulation generator produces a sinewave signal that determines the width of the pulses, and therefore the RMS voltage output of the inverter.

What we do is superimpose a switching frequency triangular waveform onto a sine wave. That combination of the two signals would look something like this.
55

SINE WEIGHTED PWM

If we magnify a portion of that sine wave we see that pulses of different widths are formed based on the "weighing" of the sine wave.

The pulses are then inverted and are applied to the base of the transistor used to fire gate or turn on the power transistors to create the actual PWM output.

The next page shows what the actual PWM signal looks like.
56

SINE WEIGHTED PWM

Bus Voltage Level

The Sine weighted PWM voltage output to the motor looks like this. The frequency of the switch from positive to negative is determined by the drive based on the speed reference input, and the RMS or Average voltage value for that frequency is determined by the number and width of the pulses. If I vary or "Modulate" the pulse width, I vary the RMS Voltage to the motor.

That voltage applied to an inductive load creates a current waveform in the motor that is very nearly a sine wave. So by modulating or changing the Width of the voltage pulses and the frequency that those pulses create we create a very close approximation of a sinusoidal current waveform. The near sinusoidal nature of the current accomplishes two of our four goals; minimizing the low order harmonics and maximizing the transfer of power in the fundamental frequency.
57

CURRENT WAVEFORM,WHY IS IT IMPORTANT

The current waveform discussed on the previous page is what we use to control the speed of the motor. We know from this formula that if we can control the change in frequency of the current waveform we can also control the speed of the motor. 120 x Applied Frequency RPM = Number of Poles per Phase

For example:

Based on the formula, a typical four pole motor with 60 Hz applied to it runs at 1800 RPM
60 Hz

If we lengthen the time for one cycle of power to 30 Hz What would be the speed of the Motor?
30 Hz

900 RPM, remember frequency f is the inverse of time, as f gets smaller the cycle get longer.

The next few pages take what we know about the PWM & resultant current waveform and apply it to a three phase application within the inverter.
58

THREE PHASE PWM & CURRENT WAVEFORM

The six transistors are turned on and off in a certain order to form three phase pulse width modulated waveforms. The order and frequency of the waveform is determined by the drives Central Procession Unit CPU. The CPU controls the gate driver boards output to the base of each power transistor.

The PWM waveform actually is a Square wave DC voltage. This voltage is applied directly to the AC motor terminals.

Remember, even though we have DC voltage applied to the motor, the current waveform resembles an AC sine wave. and is used to control speed of the AC squirrel cage induction motor.
59

CONDUCTION
During the positive half cycle of phase A, transistor # 1 is turned on and off at a frequency determined by the drive CPU. Transistor # 4 is used during the negative half cycle. Notice how the total duration makes up 360 electrical degrees or one full cycle of power.
Transistor #1 180

180

Transistor #4

Transistor #3

180

180

Phase B & C operate in the same way that phase A did except there is a phase shift. Meaning that the phases start at different times. If you are having trouble understanding phase shifts and electrical degrees, refer to the rectification module before moving on in this lesson.

Transistor #6

180

180

Transistor #5

Transistor #2

Note: the positive half cycle for B starts 120 degrees after the positive half cycle for A phase, C starts 240 degrees after A. 60

VARYING THE CURRENT OUTPUT

(+) Collector (+) Base (-) Emitter

NPN IGBT This means that changing the strength of the base signal changes the resistance of the junction between emitter and collector causing changes in conduction levels within the transistor.

Remember one of the rules of transistor conduction stated that the forward bias voltage controlling the base current determines the amount of output current. A maximum bias signal (full on) provides a maximum current output. The transistor provides infinitely variable control of conduction from off to full on.

Amplitude

The current flow or waveform is shown here. The rise and fall in current means the amplitude of each sine wave is constantly changing with time.

61

CONVERTER Vs INVERTER
The Converter training module stated that in a three phase bridge rectifier, at any point in time only two diodes or SCRs can be conducting. Each device conducts with a differing phase for a 60 degree cycle period or a total time of 120 degrees before being turned off. In fact if more than two diodes or SCRs conducted, we would create a line to line short and destroy the rectifier circuit. This rule does not apply to inverters. In fact, inverters always have three transistors conducting at any point in time. We will explain this further in the module. What is important to know is that the transistor labeling is exactly the same as the labeling of a converter. The positive transistors are along the top and the negative transistors are along the bottom.

Positive DC Bus Line

5
Phase A Phase B Phase C

Notice how each phase is labeled and the color assigned to it. For the rest of the training module, we will use Blue for phase A, Red for phase B, and green for phase C.

Negative DC Bus Line 62

CURRENT WAVEFORMS AND KRICHOFFS LAW

Kirchoffs current law (KCL) states that the phasor sum of all currents into and out of any branch point in a circuit must equal zero.

To understand current flow in an AC circuit, lets look at it related to time. T1 through T8 in the chart above represent frozen moments in time, look at the phases along each time to see which one(s) is/are most positive and negative. For example: T9 or time # 9, Phase C is the most negative while both phase A & B are positive, intersect and are equal. Does this follow Kirchoffs Law?

Yes it does! At T9, phase C is at a value of -10, while both phase A & B are at +5. We know from years of higher math study that -10 + 5 + 5 = 0

The next few pages will show how currents flow in the inductor circuit. Refer back to the picture above for the next few slides if you dont understand.
63

POWERING THE MOTOR

Using conventional flow, refer to Time 1, of the chart where phase C & A are equal & positive while Phase B is the most negative current waveform. The current path is as follows:

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice how three transistors are conducting at this moment in time and that they are not of the same phase. Each transistor is switching on and off to create the PWM voltage waveform. 64

POWERING THE MOTOR

Refer to Time 2, where phase A is most positive and Phase B & C are equal and negative current waveforms.

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice that phase A transistor #1 remained on and is now the only positive transistor conducting. Phase C transistor #5 turned off & Phase C transistor #2 turned on. Notice that phase B transistor #6 remained on but is no longer the only negative transistor conducting. 65

POWERING THE MOTOR

Refer to Time 3, A & B are equal & positive while phase C is the most negative current waveforms.

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice that phase A transistor #1 and phase C transistor #2 remained on. Phase B transistor #6 turned off while Phase B transistor #3 turned on. 66

POWERING THE MOTOR

Refer to Time 4, where phase B is the most positive phase. Phase C & A are equal and negative current waveforms.

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice that phase A transistor #1 is turned off & transistor #4 turned on, phase C transistor #2 & phase B transistor #3 remained on. 67

POWERING THE MOTOR

Refer to Time 5, where phase B & C are equal & positive while Phase A is the most negative current waveform.

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice that phase A transistor #4 remained on, phase C transistor #2 turned off & transistor # 5 turned on, Phase B transistor #3 also remained on. 68

POWERING THE MOTOR

Refer to Time 6, where phase C is the most positive and Phase A & B are equal and negative current waveforms.

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice that phase A transistor #4 & phase C transistor #5 remained on while phase B transistor #3 turned off and transistor # 6 turned on. 69

POWERING THE MOTOR

Refer to Time 7, of the chart where phase C is the most positive and Phase B is the most negative current waveforms. Phase A is not conducting.

5
The blue arrows indicate current flow into the motor leads. The red arrows show current flow from the motor back into the inverter.

Phase A

Phase B

C Phase

Notice that phase A transistor #4 turned off & transistor #1 turned on, phase C transistor #5 & phase B transistor #6 remained. Time seven is the same as time one. The cycle repeats over and over, as long as the transistors are gated. 70

POWERING THE MOTOR

In summary, fill in the chart below using the diagrams provided. T1 through T8 represent frozen moments in time, look at the phases along each time to see which one is most positive and negative. Then apply what you know about the phases to the IGBT bridge and figure out which transistors are conducting.
Positive DC Buss Line

5
Phase A Phase B Phase C

Negative DC Buss Line

Time Most Positve Phase A&C T1

Most Negative Phase "+" IGBT Conducting "-" IGBT Conducting Turn "On" Order
B B&C C C&A A A&B B 1&5 1 1&3 3 3&5 5 5&1 1 6 6&2 2 2&4 4 4&6 6
Skip

T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

A A&B B B&C C C&A

2 3 4 5 6 1 2

B&C

6&2

71

INVERTER
We now know that the inverter converts DC to AC when we are powering the motor. But what happens when the motor turns faster than what is required?
The motor acts like a generator and actually sends power back into the inverter through the diodes. This process is called regeneration. Without the diodes, regenerated energy would damage the transistors. There is another training module that covers this topic separately. We suggest completing the AC motor section next prior to going through the regeneration section.

72

REGENERATION

INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVES

Enriching Skills

Upon completing the module on Regeneration the student should be able to do the following: Understand what regeneration is, how a motor regenerates power, and how the drive processes the energy. Know what the types of regenerated power are. Understand the ways a motor is stopped and how they apply to the types of regeneration. Know what a dynamic drake is and what it does. Know what a regeneration unit is, when its used, and the advantages of it.

74

SCHEMATIC REVIEW POWERING THE MOTOR

Converter Inverter

Enriching Skills

The converter changes the three phase AC input into DC. When forward biased, current flows uni-directionally through the converter. The DC voltage goes through the Link Choke, is filtered by the Capacitors, and applied to the inverter section of the drive. There are six transistors and six diodes in the inverter section of the drive. The diodes are used during regeneration and are explained later. The transistors are turned on and off in a specific order to invert DC to AC & power the motor.

Notice how the dynamic brake is not used when powering the motor. The diodes in the inverter and the dynamic brake are used in regeneration only.

Do I always use a dynamic brake when regenerating?

No, this device may or may not be present. This module explains why later. 75

Regeneration -

Occurs when the motor turns faster than the synchronous

Enriching Skills

speed of the applied frequency. or when braking

The above statement means that the motor will act as a generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy. It puts power back onto the bus.

How is power put back onto the bus? AC Power from the motor is rectified by the IGBTs free wheeling diode in the same way the converter changed AC to DC. When motoring the diodes are reverse biased (off) and when regenerating they are forward biased (on). The transistors are used for motoring but are not used during regeneration.
Positive Bus

5
Regenerated Power from the motor

Notice how the diodes inside the inverter are labeled the same way as the converter is. Also note the colors for phase A, B, & C. These are consistent with the other training modules.

6
Negative Bus

76

QUESTION?
I thought the DC Bus was to remain relatively constant, wont regeneration cause the DC Bus voltage to rise? Wont this rise cause some damage to the drive?
Absolutely, the DC bus voltage does rise during regeneration & if not handled properly it can cause over-voltage faults or damage. During regeneration the converter is reverse biased, it cant handle the increased bus voltage or extra power. Damage may occur to the Converter, Inverter Transistor, Inverter Diodes, or the Capacitors

The converter is reverse biased or off during regeneration.

Bus voltage rises during regeneration

Regenerated Power from the motor

In addition to possible drive damage, the laws of physics say energy can never be lost or gained. So we need a way to handle regenerative energy. Lets see how.
77

FIRST, DECIDE WHAT TYPE OF REGENERATION IS PRESENT. The Two Main Types Of Regenerative Energy Are:
Rotational - This type occurs during normal decelerating of a motor. Overhauling - Describes continuous regeneration caused by the load on the motor. This is the most severe type of regeneration.

It is important to understand the difference between these and which one describes your application before considering how to manage the change in Bus voltage.
78

BRAKING CHART

Rotational regeneration is best handled by choosing the appropriate stopping means based on the requirements of the application. The chart depicts the five ways to stop a motor. Notice how Coast to Stop takes the longest time while Regenerative Braking is relatively short. So when are each of these used?
79

ROTATIONAL REGENERATION- STOPING A MOTOR

Coast to Stop is used when the application does not require any stopping means. When power is removed from the drive, the motor is allowed to coast until it stops. The friction on the motor shaft or the application absorbs the mechanical energy on the motor. Summary: The energy is dissipated by friction in the form of heat so there is no regenerative energy going back into the drive. Ramp to Stop is used when a relatively long period of time to stop the motor is acceptable. The drive ramps the speed of the motor down slowly and absorbs a relatively small amount of regenerative energy through the capacitors and drive circuitry. Summary: The drive is able to handle small levels of regeneration without any additional devices. This option may not be suitable for use with all applications.
80

ROTATIONAL REGENERATION- STOPING A MOTOR

Injection Braking and Flux Braking are used to slow a motor down quicker than the first two methods.

Injection Braking pumps DC into the motor causing it to do the actual braking.
Flux Braking - The actual flux current or magnetizing current is increased in the motor by the drive causing the motor to do the braking. This process is the exact opposite of field weakening.
Summary These types of braking dump most of the stored energy into the motor by intentionally causing high losses in the motor.

Neither provide a controlled stop time. Not having complete control of the motor may be a safety issue in some applications
Using these types of braking may damage the motor over time. Use extreme caution when using these methods of braking and only for a relatively short duration.
81

ROTATIONAL & OVERHAULING REGENERATION

Dynamic Braking is used when a relatively short braking time is required. This method of stopping a motor needs additional equipment like a seventh IGBT within the drive and resistor or a dynamic brake or a brake chopper. This is explained further later in the module.

When using this method of stopping or braking, the regenerated energy is burned off in the form of heat through the resistors. This method does a great job of eliminating the relatively large rotational regenerative energy in short periods of time. It can also be used for overhauling regenerative applications but it is not necessarily the most cost effective means of braking the motor. We will discuss this further later in the module.
82

OVERHAULING REGENARATION- STOPING A MOTOR

Overhauling loads are the most demanding type of applications for braking a motors rotation. An enormous amount of energy can be regenerated in these conditions and must be dealt with effectively. Dynamic Braking and Regenerative Braking are the methods to use for these applications.

Regenerative Braking is the most sophisticated means of braking and because of its cost it is usually used only for Overhauling Regenerative applications. It requires our 1336R regenerative unit in addition to the drive. This device takes the regenerated energy from an overhauling load and converts the excess DC on the bus into AC. The unit then sends the AC voltage back onto the main power line. This method of braking actually has an additional benefit because it saves operational costs by reducing the utility bills. We will discuss this more later in the module.
83

What if we do nothing to address the regenerative energy?

Question?

OVERVOLTAGE FAULT!
Drive is safe but motor & load Coast. This may result in an unsafe condition!
84

HANDING REGENERATIVE ENERGY

The rest of this training module will focus on Dynamic Brakes and our 1336R Regeneration Unit. These are really the only two methods of braking a motor that handle excessive regenerated energy effectively. We will cover the DBU first. Dynamic Brake Unit.
Dynamic brakes come in several forms and are given many differing names but they all do the same thing. They burn off the regenerated energy through a resistor bank. The list below are just a few names used for Dynamic Brakes.

Chopper. Dynamic Brake. Shunt Regulator. Snubber.

Regeneration Unit.

There are two ways the 1336R can be used. Both are very effective in handling regenerated energy.

Common DC Bus. Regen Brake.

85

DYNAMIC BRAKE Vs CHOPPER

The previous page indicated that a Dynamic Brake, Chopper, Snubber, & Shunt Regulator were all Dynamic Brakes. Why does Rockwell use both Dynamic Brakes & Choppers in different situations?
1) Fundamentally, all of these terms describe a device that burns off the extra bus voltage created during regeneration. 2) Our competition may use these terms as well and in a differing way but we all agree on the fundamental purpose of these.

3) Rockwell uses only two of these terms dynamic brake & chopper.
4) A dynamic brake is typically used for smaller regenerated levels and contains the seventh IGBT and resistor bank within the same enclosure. 5) A chopper is typically used for larger levels of regeneration. The IGBT circuitry is contained in a separate enclosure from the resistor bank. 6) A drive may include the seventh IGBT and / or resistor within its enclosure. In this case the dynamic brake is part of the drive.

86

Dynamic Brake / Chopper Circuit

680 Volts DC 460 VAC Dynamic Brake or Chopper

A typical 460 volt AC drive would provide approximately 680 volts DC on the bus during normal operation. The Dynamic Brake Unit (DBU) or Chopper would not be active until needed.

During regeneration, the control circuits inside the DBU sense a voltage rise on the DC Bus. When the bus reaches 750 VDC the control circuits turn on the IGBT causing current to flow through the brake resistor. The current flow through the resistor causes the voltage to dissipate or burn off. The DBU remains active until the voltage on the bus drops to 735 VDC. It turns back on when it reaches 750. Note: For drives that run on 230 & 575 volt AC, the turn ON/OFF points are re-scaled.

750 VDC

Control Circuits

IGBT

87

PROS AND CONS OF A DBU OR CHOPPER

Remember the purpose of our Dynamic Brake or Chopper is to eliminate the excessive DC Bus voltage during regeneration.
Advantages
Provides a simple effective method to handle the rise in bus voltage during heavy regeneration periods. The DBU or Chopper provide low up front cost compared to other options.

Disadvantages
The heat dissipation from the resistor banks may effect other components. Careful placement of the resistors needs to to be considered.

Heat affects all components including resistors. Excessive or prolonged heat may damage components. For this reason, the duty cycle should be limited. Power purchased from the utility is lost to heat, it could have been recycled with another method.
88

HANDLING REGENERATIVE ENERGY

Remember, there are two effective ways to handle regenerated energy. 1) Through a Dynamic Brake Unit

2) Regeneration Unit.
We just completed the section on the DBU, if you dont understand it, go back and review it again. Now lets look at the Regeneration Unit.

A regeneration unit is a separate device from the drive that takes excessive DC Bus voltage and processes it so the regenerated energy is not wasted.

Regeneration Unit. There are two ways the 1336R

can be used. Both are very effective in handling regenerated energy. Common DC Bus. Regen Brake.

89

Thank you