Protozoa (unicellular organisms) paramecium

Protozoa (unicellular organisms)amoeba

Protozoa are unicellular microorganisms such as the Amoeba and paramecium. They are very small in size and have large total surface area to volume ratios. The gaseous exchanges are achieved by simple diffusion and they occur rapidly and efficiently across the thin plasma membrane.

Protozoa (unicellular organisms)

Oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses into the cells down the partial pressure gradient while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells through their permeable membranes via the same mechanism. The respiratory structure of the protozoa is thus a very simple one.

fish

A fish needs a specialised respiratory structure for gaseous exchanges in water. Water has less oxygen and does not flow as freely as atmospheric air. The specialised respiratory organs for efficient gaseous exchanges in water for fish are called gills. A bony fish has four pairs of gills which are covered by the operculum. Each gill is supported by a small rod of bone called the gill arch. The surface of each gill filament has many plate-like projections called lamellas. The plate-like structures increase the surface area. These gill lamellas contain a network of blood capillaries so that oxygenated and deoxygenated blood can flow to and away from the gills.

Structure of gills

Adaptation
The gill filaments are highly specialised for gaseous exchanges. Their characteristics include:

Characteristics of the gills filaments

The breathing mechanism

The breathing mechanism of the fish involves the opening and closing of the mouth and the operculum. During inspiration, the fish opens its mouth and the floor of the buccal cavity is lowered thus lowering the pressure. The high water pressure on the outside presses the operculum to close. In the way, water is drawn into the buccal cavity.
Conversely, during expiration, the mouth of the fish closes and the floor of the buccal cavity is raised and pressure increases. Water from the outside is then forced to flow into the opercular cavity and over the gills. In this way, the gaseous exchanges occur.

Breathing mechanism of a fish

Diffusion of oxygen from water into blood capillaries over the gill lamella

Insects

Unlike fish which use gills for gaseous exchanges, insects use tracheae (singular: trachea). Tracheae are air-filled hollow tubes that branch and re-branch throughout the whole body. Each trachea has a pair opening to the outside called spiracles. These spiracles are located on the thorax and abdomen of an insect. Usually, most insects have ten pairs of spiracles each. Each spiracle is protected by hair to prevent foreign bodies from entry. The opening and closing of the spiracles are achieved by means of valves which are controlled by tiny muscles.

Traceal system

Tracheal system
The fine tubes of the tracheae that branch throughout the body are called tracheoles. They end in the fluid of the body cells. The gaseous exchanges takes place between the tracheoles and body cells by diffusion. Oxygen diffuses from the tracheoles into the body cells whereas carbon dioxide diffuses out from the body cells into the tracheoles and are removed from the body.

Adaptation
The tracheoles are highly adapted for efficient gaseous exchanges. There are numerous and very fine tracheoles throughout the body that provide a large surface area. In addition, tracheoles have moist walls so that oxygen can be dissolved easily before diffusing into the body cells thus increasing the rate of diffusion. The thin epithelial walls of the tracheoles also facilitate the diffusion processes and at the same time, increase the rate of diffusion.

The breathing mechanism

The breathing mechanism of insects involves rhythmic contractions and relaxations of the abdominal muscles. The rhythmic movements change the volume and pressure of the abdomen and they cause air to be drawn and forced in and out of the tracheae through the spiracles.
During inhalation, the abdominal muscles relax and the valves of the spiracles open. The pressure in the tracheae decreases and accordingly, air is drawn into the tracheae through the spiracles; the air subsequently moves to the end of the tracheoles for gaseous exchanges. During exhalation, the abdominal muscles contract. This causes the pressure in the tracheae to increase and hence forces the air to move out through the spiracles.

Amphibians

Amphibians, such as frogs, live partly on land and partly in water. As such, their respiratory structure must be adapted so they can breathe both in water and on land. They breathe through the skin, mouth and lungs. Therefore, the mechanism of respiration for the amphibian involves three methods:

Mechanism of amphibians

Respiratory structure of a frog

Adaptation for cutaneous respiration

The skin of amphibians adapts as it is thin so as to allow gaseous exchanges to occur easily and efficiently. When the amphibians are on land, the skin is also moist so that the gases from the atmosphere can be dissolved readily. There are also many blood capillaries in the skin so that when they are in water, the large number of blood capillaries increases the rate of exchanges of the oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood capillaries and the surrounding water.

Adaptation for buccal respiration

The thin wall of the large mouth cavity contains many blood capillaries. The large number of blood capillaries increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the mouth cavity. At the same time, the thin epithelium lining is moist. This facilitates the gaseous exchanges through the epithelium.

Adaptation of lungs for pulmonary respiration

Amphibians use pulmonary respiration when they are on land. The inner walls of the lungs are heavily folded. This increases the surface area and thus increases the rate of gaseous exchanges. The walls of the lungs are also thin and this allows the gases to diffuse readily. The walls are also moist, enabling the oxygen to dissolve first in them before diffusing across. There are also networks of blood capillaries on the walls of the lungs which help to increase the rate of gaseous exchanges.

The breathing mechanism of pulmonary respiration During inhalation, the floor of the mouth is lowered. The volume inside the mouth increases and the pressure decreases. Due to the pressure differences, air is drawn through the nostrils into the mouth. The nostrils then close and the floor of mouth rises. The pressure in the cavity increases and air is forced into the lungs. The gaseous exchanges take place between the blood in the lung capillaries and the inhaled air. During exhalation, the nostrils open and the air is pushed out through the glottis, buccal cavity and the nostrils. This is achieved by the contraction of the abdominal muscles which pressing against the lungs.

Respiratory structures and the breathing mechanism in humans

The human respiratory system consists of a complex respiratory structure. It is made up of the nasal cavity, pharynx, tracheae, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs. The respiratory process involved air entering through the nostrils and subsequently into the pharynx, tracheae, bronchi, bronchioles, finally ending in air sacs called alveoli. There are as many as 700 million air sacs surrounded by a capillary network for the purpose of gaseous exchanges.

Human respiratory system

Human respiratory system

The trachea and bronchi are strengthened by cartilage rings (C-shaped). This is to prevent the respiratory tube from collapsing during breathing. At the same, the cartilage rings keep the tube open and allowed the passage of air. The epithelium lining of the trachea and bronchi is moist. This is to trap dust and microorganisms present in the inhaled air. The trapped particles are moved by the cilia on the epithelial lining to the pharynx and then to the stomach for removal. The trachea branches into two bronchi each of which goes into a lung. Each of the bronchi branches into bronchioles and subsequently, branch and rebranch into finer tubes, finally ending in alveoli. Oxygen enters the alveoli and diffuses through the epithelium lining and the capillary walls into the blood.

Adaption

The adaptations in human lungs for efficient gaseous exchanges are as follows:

Adaption

The Breathing Mechanism in Humans during Inhalation and Exhalation

The breathing mechanism involves air entering the lungs during inhalation and air moving out of the lungs during exhalation. The lungs do not have muscles but breathing is made possible by the action of a set of antagonistic intercostals muscles and the action of the diaphragm muscles. The figure below show the location of the intercostal muscles.

The location of the intercostals muscles

The breathing mechanism in humans during inhalation and exhalation

The mechanism of breathing in humans

THE END