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Seorang tukang kayu, guru & ahli sains melihat seekor biri-biri hitam di sebuah kebun di Perak melalui

tingkap keretapi. "Aha," tukang kayu berkata, Semua biribiri di Perak berwarna hitam." "Hmm," guru berkata, Apa yang kamu maksudkan adalah sesetengah biri-biri di Perak berwarna hitam." Tidak" kata ahli sains, Apa yang kita ketahui adalah terdapat sekurang-kurangnya seekor biri-biri di Perak, dan sekurangkurangnya sebelah biri-biri tersebut adalah berwarna hitam. "

A humorous(?) story that illustrates this..

Sains bermula dengan penambahan kepada pengalaman biasa dan ia menggunakan pemerhatian dan pengukuran yang terancang untuk penambahan pengetahuan.
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Adler

Topik 1: Angkasa Sejarah Perkembangan Astronomi

Umur Bumi: ~ 6000 Tahun Pengiraan berdasarkan Alkitab


Archbishop Anglican, James Usshers Annals of the World (1658) Tarikh ciptaan ~ 4004 BC Bermula pada malam 21 September 4004 BC

Ide-Ide Awal tentang Angkasa

Berdasarkan spekulasi : The School of the Athens oleh

Yunani: Bumi tidak bergerak. Kalau ia bergerak, kita akan merasa gerakan. Plato (428-347 BC): Bumi pegun dan planet-planet mengelilinginya dengan orbit bulat. Aristotle (384-322 BC). Bumi pegun dan kosmo Geosentrik dengan 55 sfera. Plato
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Aristotle 384-322 BC
Aristotle adalah murid di Akademi Plato. Tutor kepada Alexander the Great Percaya yang bulatan adalah bentuk yang unggul. Seterusnya percaya alam semesta adalah berbentuk sfera (geocentric Universe), dan berpusat pada Bumi. Pergerakan planet dan bintang mesti bulat kerana pergerakan dalam bentuk unggul tidak akan berhenti. Ide-ide Aristotle diterima Gereja dengan sepenuhnya dan ianya tidak diuji untuk seribu tahun berikutnya sehingga eksperimen Galileo membuktikan kesilapannya.

Aristotle

Alam Semesta adalah sfera (Kosmo Gosentrik), dan berpusat pada Bumi.

3 prinsip Aristotle

Bumi adalah pusat Alam Semesta

Semua pergerakan dalam Alam Semesta adalah bulat.


Aristotles Prime Mover

Setiap sfera dibuat dengan bahan unggul dengan sifat-sifat yang tidak boleh berubah (cth: keterangan).

Size Bumi Eratosthenes (276-195 B.C.) mengira jejari Bumi iaitu 6800 kilometer. Jejari sebenar Bumi ialah 6356 (pada kutub) dan 6378 (khatulistiwa) kilometer. Perbezaannya cuma 8%. His method entailed measuring the shadow length of a stick set vertically in the ground in the town of Alexandria on the summer solstice at noon, converting the shadow length to an angle of solar light incidence, and using the distance to Syene, a town where no shadow is cast at noon on the summer solstice
Figure 1.1

Ahli astronomi Mesir, Ptolemy (A.D. 90-168)

Ptolemy

Alam Semesta mengikut Ptolemy (150 A.D.): planetplanet bergerak dalam orbit bulat & epicycles dalam bukunya Almagest.

Alam Semesta Mengikut Ptolemy


Berpusat di Bumi. 10 konsentrik, lutsinar sfera berhablur (crystalline) yang unggul yang menetapkan pergerakan setiap planet. Semua sfera ini adalah benda-benda bercahaya. Di luar sfera ke 10, adalah Syurga Empyrean di mana Tuhan & roh-roh terselamat berada.

Revolusi dalam Astronomi


Kepercayaan lama tentang alam semesta adalah berdasarkan sistem Ptolemaic iaitu mengikut _____________ ahli astronomi pada abad ke 2, Ptolemy. Pandangan Ptolemy tentang alam semesta dipanggil Geocentric yang ____________ Bumi di meletakkan _________ pusat alam semesta.
13 Ptolemy (2nd

Alam Semesta Ptolemaic (Geocentric)


Bumi ___________ pegun di tengah-tengah _____________ bulatan sfera. Semua sfera mengelilingi Bumi dengan orbit membulat _________ Di luar sfera sistem Ptolemaic adalah Syurga __________, di mana Tuhan berada.

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Nicholas Copernicus February 1473 May 1543


As time went on, Ptolemy's system was increasingly hard pressed to explain the erratic movements of planets eg why they move faster nearer the Sun and retrograde motion. In 1543 Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) suggested replacing the earth with the sun as the center of the universe.

The Copernican System (Heliocentric)


In 1543, Polish Astronomer, Nicholas _____________ Copernicus _________ published a book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. He argued the Geocentric __________ system was too complicated. Heliocentric He believed in a ____________ view of the universe, which placed the ________ at the Sun center.

Copernicus16

The Copernican System (Heliocentric)


The ______, Sun not Earth, sits at the center of the universe. The apparent movement of the sun around the Earth was caused by the rotation of Earth on its __________ axis. Planets orbit the Sun in circular orbits. __________
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Earth at center

Sun at center

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Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601 Denmark)
Did not agree with heliocentric model. Focus on geocentric model based on observational evidence that the earth did not move. Hired Kepler in 1600 to mathematically analyze his data with the aim of proving his model correct.

Tycho Brahes Uraniborg Astronomical Observatory

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a German who was Brahe's assistant, observed that the orbits of the planets were not circles but ellipses and developed three laws.

Johannes Kepler
A __________ German mathematician who confirmed that the _______ was at the Sun center of the universe. He added that orbits of the planets around the sun were not circular, but instead ____________, or elliptical egg-shaped, with the sun toward the end of ellipse.

Click picture to watch clip

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focus

Keplers First Law: The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.

Keplers Second Law: The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the ellipse

T r
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Keplers Third Law: The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi major axes, r

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

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Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642 * Italy)
First to use telescope to study the heavens Mountains and craters on the moon Rotation of the sun on its axis Phases of Venus Moons of Jupiter Stars in the Milky Way

Sunspots Galileo observed sunspots that moved, indicating that the Sun was rotating on an axis and that it was not made from a perfect, unchanging substance. He observed four points of light that changed their positions around the planet Jupiter and concluded that they were moons circling the planet as it moved around its orbit.

Galileo used his telescope to show that Venus went through a complete set of phases, just like the Moon circling around the Sun. This observation confirmed the Copernican system and proved that the Ptolemaic system (Earth the center) was incorrect.
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Galileo Galilei
An Italian ___________ astronomer & ______________, mathematician Galileo was the first to observe the heavens using a telescope ___________. Galileo discovered: The mountians __________ & craters of the moon. Jupiter Four large moons orbiting __________. rings of Saturn. The ________ __________ sunspots on the Sun. Galileos book, The Starry Messenger, supported heliocentric view of the universe. This the ____________ contradicted the Churchs view and led to Galileo heresy being charged with __________. 30

Galileo's challenge of the Church's view on the Universe got him into deep trouble with Rome.

Acceleration of falling objects on Earth = 9.8 m/s2. Measured by Galileo, who died the year Newton was born.

Sir Isaac Newton 1642 1727

PRINCIPIA

Isaac Newton
English ___________ mathematician & ___________ physicist whose major work, the Principia, defined three laws of ________ motion that govern planetary bodies, as well as objects on Earth. Newtons universal law of ____________, gravitation explained why planetary bodies do not go off in straight lines, but instead continue in elliptical ___________ orbits around the sun. Newtons theory of gravity stated that every attracted object in the universe is ___________ to every other objects by a force called gravity.

Newtons ideas
Idea 1 The force used to keep an object rotating in a circle depends on the objects speed and the circles radius in this way:F = m v2 / r Where F = centripetal force

Idea 2 The Moon is in orbit around the Earth because gravity supplies this centripetal force.

Is the Sun the center of the galaxy or universe?


Harlow Shapley and Henrietta Leavitt in 1918: Sun is not Prediction: Sun at center of Cosmos at center of universe. Hubble & others (1923): The Milky Way galaxy is not the entire universe. It is just one of many galaxies

Cosmology

The Study of the Universe: its structure, origin, evolution, and destiny

Cosmology through the ages

Mayan temple aligned with Sun Starry cosmos with Earth at the center painted by a 11th Century nun

11th Century Chinese map of stars in the sky

Our View of the Cosmos - the story of scientific models

tronomy has seen 3 scientific revolutions in cosmolog 2nd Century: Claudius Ptolemy (Physics of Aristotle) Model: Earth-centered Cosmology Big Idea: Different laws for Earth and the cosmos 16th Century: Nicolaus Copernicus (Physics of Newton) Model: Sun-centered Cosmology Big Idea: Universal physics; same laws everywhere 20th Century: Edwin Hubble (Physics of Einstein) Model: Big Bang Cosmology Big Idea: Universe is changing, evolving

Tutorial 9
Discuss and write a summary on how Eratosthenes calculate the radius of the Earth. the Copernican explanation of retrograde motion. how Galileo showed that the earth orbits the sun. Activity 1.1 Finding North Activity 1.2 Locating And Recording The Position Of Objects

From Ptolemy (2nd century) to Copernicus (16th century)

Geocentric Model

Heliocentric Model

Geocentric models have problems explaining retrograde motion of planets.

Planets usually move west to east relative to stars; during retrograde motion, they move east to west.

Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model for the universe. Nicholas


Copernicus (1473-1543) Poland Stated that Sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe.

In the heliocentric model of Copernicus, retrograde motion of planets is naturally explained. Retrograde motions occur naturally if planets further from the Sun move more slowly. Example: Earth and Mars Earth is nearer the Sun, its orbital speed = 30 km/sec Mars is further away from the Sun, its orbital speed = 24 km/sec

As Earth laps Mars, Mars appears to go backward as seen by observer on Earth.

1 4 7

2 5 8

3: prograde (forward) 6: retrograde (backward) 9: prograde again

Retrograde Motion
The apparent temporary backward motion of a planet. This is caused when a faster moving inner planet, say the Earth, bypasses a slower moving out planet, say Mars.

Practical 3 (Next week)


The Rising of the Sun

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