ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Textbook: Introduction to Engineering Experimentation By Wheeler and Ganji

Instructor: Abdul R Ofoli Topic: General Characteristics of Measurements

INTRODUCTION
In Engineering, carefully design experiments are needed to: conceive and verify theoretical concepts
develop new methods and products evaluate performance and behavior of existing products etc.

Experimentation and the design of measurement systems are major engineering activities. Why?

Applications of Engineering Experimentation Measurement in Engineering Experimentation - new information is being sought Measurement in operational devices - for monitoring and process control

INTRODUCTION (cont)
Measurement in Engineering Experimentation
Involves using the measurements process to seek new information and Testing of existing products to determine maintenance requirements These falls broadly into three categories:

1. Research Experimentation 2. Development Experimentation 3. Performance Testing Whats the main difference between 1 and 2? In research, concepts for new products or processes are being sought (often unsuccessfully), while in development, known concepts are being used to establish potential commercial products. Any examples?

Measurement in Engineering Experimentation

Research experiments are frequently highly uncertain and often leads to dead end.

Development programs usually have better define goals than research programs and frequently result in an operational product.
Performance testing is somewhat different from both research and developmental experiments. How different? It is done on products that have been developed and in many cases are already on the market. It may be carried out to: Demonstrate applicability for a particular application To assess reliability or to determine product lifeline Determine needs for maintenance (periodic testing).

DIMENSIONS and UNITS

The physical world is described with a set of dimensions. Length, mass, time and temperature are dimensions. When a numerical value is assigned to a dimension, it must be done in a unit system. The International System of Units (SI) is the most widely used unit system in the world, due to its consistency and simplicity. In the US here, a unit system based on the old British unit system is still widely used., hence both units will be used in these class.

Units Convertion

Practice Examples
Problem 1.1

Problem 1.3
Problem 1.4

Chapter 2 Topic: General Characteristics of Measurements

Generalized Measurement System

Measurands: Numerical values for physical variables. The sensing element has a significant physical characteristic that changes in response to changes in the measurand. The signal modification device changes the output of the sensing element in some way to make it suitable for the indicating or recording device.

Figure 2.1 Generalized measurement system.

Example - Thermometer
What is the physical dimension to be measured? Temperature What is the sensing element in this case? Volume of mercury What is the signal modification system? By connecting the bulb to the stem. (Note: the displacement mercury in the bulb is proportional to the differential thermal expansion between the mercury and the glass envelop) What is the indicating device? The scale that is either next to the

Figure 2.2 Mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Measurement Error
Definition: error = measured value true value Note: Error in this technical usage does not imply there is any mistake in the measurement process, although mistakes can cause errors. i

If the true value of the measurand is known, there will be no need to make measurements except in the case of.. Calibration!!! What we can estimate is however the uncertainty interval (or simply uncertainty) of the measurement.
The uncertainty is an estimate (with some level of confidence) of the limits of the error in the measurement.

Example
Q. How will you interpret the error in the following statement: with 95% confidence, the uncertainty of voltage measurement is +/- 1V. This means the error will be greater than 1 V in less than 5% of the cases.

Two Categories of Errors 1. Systematic Errors ( same as fixed or bias errors) Systematic or bias errors are consistent, repeatable errors.
2. Random Errors (or precision errors) Random errors are cause by lack of repeatability in the output of the measurement.

Sources of Systematic Errors (Bias Errors) 1. Error in the calibration of the measurement system.
These are known as calibration errors. One source of this nonlinearity. 2. Errors obtained where the insertion of a measuring device alters the measurand. This is known as loading errors. 3. Measuring system is affected by variables other than the measurand. Example related to this source of error is spatial error. If the measurand varies in a spatial region and yet a single measurement or a limited number of measurements are used to determine the average value for the region, there will be a spatial error.

Systematic Errors Examples

Nonlinearity If a system is treated as if it has a linear relationship between input and output, actual nonlinearity of the system will cause errors. Loading Error Measuring temperature where the beaker of water and the thermometer are initially at different temperatures. Why? The thermometer is said to be an intrusive measurement device and produces significant loading. Devices with negligible loading errors are called nonintrusive. Example: measuring temperature by sensing the infrared

Sources of Random Errors

1. Errors can originate from the measuring system itself, from the experimental system or from the environment. 2. Uncontrolled variables in the measurement process. E.g. not controlling temperature versus amplifier performance. 3. Electrical noise. (electric and magnetic fields caused by building wiring, local radio stations etc can affect readings by altering voltages in measuring systems) How to minimize Random Errors Eliminating uncontrolled variables Properly shielding or grounding the measuring system

Random and Systematic Errors

Random errors are cause by lack of repeatability in the output of the measuring system.

Random error
Systematic error

= reading average of reading

= average of reading true value

Figure 2.3 Distinction between systematic and random errors.

Example Problems
You attempt to determine the validity of a bathroom scale by repeatedly placing 20 lb of accurate weights on it. Ten readings were obtained with values of 20.2, 20.2, 20.6, 20.0, 20.4, 20.2, 20.0, 20.6, 20.0, and 20.2 lb. Estimate (i) the systematic error and (ii) the maximum random error of the measurements.

Example Problems
Determine whether the following measurements are intrusive or nonintrusive.

(a) Measuring amperage of current in a wire using clamp - on ammeter (b) Measuring flow of fluid in a pipe by installing an orifice meter in the pipe. (c) Measuring composition of gases in an exhaust using a device which optically measures transmitted infrared radiation. (d) Determining the surface temperature of a pipe using a thermometer that measures the emitted infrared radiation. (e) Rotational speed of a shaft indicated by a strobotachometer.
The strobotachometer measures rotational speed by shining a pulsing light on a mark on the shaft and adjusting the pulsing rate until the mark appears stationary. The light has negligible effect on the rotation of the shaft and is non-intrusive.

Example Problems
Determine if the following errors are of random or systematic type. Justify your response.

(a) A digital scale, that always shows 0.2 lb when no weight is applied. (b) Vibration of the needle of an automobile speedometer. (c) Consistent temperature difference between two sensors reading the air temperature in the same room.