Gene

• Genes act as units of heredity, transferring the same instructions from

parent to offspring.
• Genes are functional units of DNA that contain the instructions for making
proteins or RNA.
• Each somatic cell has two copies of a gene, while gametes have only one
copy
• The name "gene" was coined
by Johannsen in 1909
Allele
• Different forms of the same gene
• Occur at loci on chromosomes
• Alleles govern the contrasting forms of a character

• The genes are particulate. ∴ the two alleles of a gene do not modify each

other when they stay together in the same cell

• They separate and pass into different gametes of the hybrid

Locus – fixed position of a gene on a chromosome

Note in the diagram that the genetic sequence of the two alleles is different.
Note that the gene will likely function the same, even though the genetic
sequences are slightly different
Character/ trait = a feature that can be inherited
Quantitative traits
Qualitative traits

S.No. Quantitative traits Qualitative traits

1 Governed by polygenes By oligogenes
2 Effect of each gene is not Detectable
detectable
3 Variation is continuous Discontinuous
4 Separation into different Separation into different classes
classes is possible is not possible
5 Highly influenced by Little influenced by environmental
environmental factors factors
 Homozygous and Heterozygous
A certain terminology is used to describe how each individual has
inherited the alleles of specific genes.

Homozygous - having an identical pair of

alleles for a specific character or feature

Heterozygous - having different alleles

for a specific character or feature
 Hemizygous

A condition in which only one of the alternate allele of a gene pair is

present as in sex linkage or as a result of deletion
Dominant

• One allele express itself at the expense of the other in the heterozygote

• Only one allele at a locus is expressed. The other (recessive gene) is

suppressed

Recessive

• An allele, which is incapable expressing itself phenotypically

• An allele that is suppressed in the presence of a dominant gene. If the two

recessive alleles occur at a locus, then the trait is expressed.

Codominant
• Both alleles at a locus are expressed with equal force
Phenotype
The observable characteristics of an organism
Can be altered by envt.
Can be measured or grouped in to distinct
classes

Genotype
The genetic constitution of an organism
Not very easily influenced by envt.
Predicted based on phenotypic ratios
Generations
• P generation - represents parents

• F1 generation (first filial) - offspring of these (P) parents

• F2 generation (second filial) - offspring of these (F1)

parents
Monohybrid cross
Hybridization between two individuals or strains, which differ for a single
character
 Dihybrid cross
Hybridization between two individuals or strains, which differ for two
characters

Polyhybrid
The offspring of parents differing from each other in more than two characters.
Backcross
The cross of an F1 hybrid to one of its parents
Testcross
The cross of an F1 hybrid with an individual or strain having the recessive
phenotype

Purpose: to verify the ratio in which the

different gametes of the F1 hybrid are
produced
It crosses a dominant phenotype (P_) with a
recessive phenotype (pp).
If the cross creates:
PP x pp -> Pp 100% purple offspring, or

Pp x pp -> Pp 50% purple offspring and

pp 50% white offspring
so it proves the existence of a recessive
allele in the dominant parent.
Punnett Squares - These are the tools that we use to
determine the genetic possibilities of various
combinations of parents

BB Bb Bb bb
¼ 2/4 ¼
3 : 1
MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS
 Gregor Johann Mendel
• Born in 1822 in Brunn (Austria), now Brno in Czechoslovakia
• Joined Monastery in 1843
• In 1847, became priest
• In 1854, appointed as substitute science teacher
• In 1857, began his famous experiments on pea
• In 1865, presented his paper before Natural Science Society of
Brunn
• In 1866, his paper ‘Experiments on plant hybridization” published
in the proceedings of the society
• Died in 1884 at an age of 62 years
Mendel's Monastery Garden
 Selection of pea as an experimental material

• Self pollinated
• Large flowers
• Seeds are large; Easy to grow
• Needs small space
• Reproduces in one season
• Varieties had contrasting forms of several characters
Seven pairs of contrasting traits
 Several characters had two contrasting forms

Dominant Recessive
Trait
Expression Expression
Form of ripe seed (R) Smooth (Round) Wrinkled
Color of seed coat (Y) Yellow Green
Color of flower (P) Purple White
Form of ripe pods (I) Inflated Constricted
Color of unripe pods (G) Green Yellow
Position of flowers (A) Axial Terminal
Length of stem (T) Tall Dwarf
 Crossing or hybridization

Purple x White White x Purple

Results of Mendel’s original crosses for seven pairs of characters

S.No. Structure Character Dominant Recessive Ratio in F2

1 Seed Form 5,474 (R) 1,850 (W) 2.96 : 1

2 Cotyledon Colour 6,022 (Y) 2,001 (G) 3.01 : 1

3 Seed coat Form 882 (I) 299 (C) 2.95 : 1

4 Seed coat Colour 705 (G) 224 (W) 3.15 : 1

5 Unripe pods Colour 428 (G) 152 (Y) 2.82 : 1

6 Flowers Position 651 (A) 207 (T) 3.14 : 1

7 Stem Length 787 (L) 277 (S) 2.84 : 1

 Mendel's First Law
Hybrid The law of segregation

Aa They do not mix or blend

Hybrid

Remain together in a pure form without affecting each

Aa other (Law of purity of gametes)

Hybrid

Separate into different gametes in equal numbers

Aa Separation occurs during Anaphase I

Hybrid

When there is complete dominance, segregation

Aa leads to phenotypic ratio 3:1
Round Yellow seeds x Wrinkled Green seeds
 Mendel's Second Law
The law of Independent Assortment/
Law of free recombination

During gamete formation the segregation of the

alleles of one gene is independent of the segregation
of the alleles of another gene
 Main features of SECOND LAW

• Explains simultaneous inheritance of two plant characters

• In F1 two gene controlling two different characters, come together,

each gene exhibits independent dominant behaviour without
affecting or modifying the effect of other gene

• Segregation occurs during gamete formation – independently

• Allele of one gene can freely combine with the allele of another
gene – equal chance
The two laws of Mendel, especially the law of
segregation, are the basis of the science of
genetics, and Mendel is aptly known as the
‘Father of Genetics’
 Rediscovery of Mendel's work
• Mendel presented his paper in 1865 but the scientific world failed to
recognize its importance for nearly thirty- five years.
• Hugo de Vries in Holland working on Oenothera; Carl Correns in
Germany working on peas and maize and Eric Tschermak in Austria
obtained results similar to those obtained by Mendel, but none of them
had seen Mendel's paper before beginning their own experiments.
• The results were published by
Hugo de Vires in March 1900
Carl Correns in April 1900
Eric Tschermak in June 1900
• The rediscovery initiated a spurt of research activity in the field of genetics
• Thus the ‘Science of Genetics’ was truly borne