MUD FLOWS AND AVALANCHES

Er . chhavi gupta

INTRODUCTION OF MUD FLOWS

Mud flows are the flows of a mixture of mud , rocks , vegetation even trees , etc. down the slope of mountains after a spell of very heavy rains. Mud flows is similar to landslide the only difference between landslide and mud flows is in the landslide mostly saturated soil is involved but in mud flows the whole mass of water , trees , rock etc. travel like a river flow at a great speed carrying a mixture as described above on its path. Many havocs have been caused by these mud flows in various parts of the earths.

CONTINUE.
Mud flows are becoming more and more frequent due to larger amount of rain that are falling now a days on the earth and also due to the present spreading of human habitation to the hills and forests. In India mud flows usually occur in high mountain regions as in Kashmir and Himalayan regions.

ORIGIN OF MUD FLOWS

During heavy rains in the mountains , water and talus deposits on the slope including the large pieces of rock fragments travel down the slopes. They may form temporary dams behind which water gathered. After sometimes the temporary dam suddenly breaches and the whole water , rocks , trees , vegetation etc. rush down the valley like a river pushing away everything on its path. The quantity of mud that these flows carry is so large that they are called mud flows.

Continue.
Mud flows can transport very large pieces of boulders down the slope. The density of mudflows is 1.5 t/m3. Structure like bridges, building , trees etc. which are in the path of mudflows will collapse The difference between stream and mud flows contain a lot of talus materials like stones, trees earth etc. so that it is look very muddy, where as stream flows consist of water and soil particle only.

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS FOR MUD FLOWS

The debris that are produced by weathering are dislodged (shifted ) from rocks above steep slopes accumulate at the base of the slope. That is known as talus or screen. Two main or necessary component for mud flows 1) steep mountain slopes with a lot of talus deposit. 2) Very heavy rain. India- mud flow is reported to be occurring in slopes of Kashmir and other hilly places like Himalayas. These are the regions of Himalayas where people go for religious reason.

PROTECTION MEASURES
The process of controlling mud flows is difficult as it takes place in the high hill slopes. Stabilization of talus and debris is one method of mud flow control. If debris is not in large quantity it can be stopped by means of proper retaining walls and wired fences. Plating trees having roots deep in the soil along slopes. Felling trees (deforestation)and grazing of animals should be prohibited .

CONTINUE.
All the roads in these regions likely to have mud flows, must run at a higher level. The important at the bottom of valleys that may be subjected to mud flow from geological consideration, should be made as over bridges so that if mud flows happen, traffic is not disrupted.

WHAT IS AN AVALANCHE?
Technically, an avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside. It can be compared to a landslide, only with snow instead of earth. Another common term for avalanche is snowslide. As an avalanche becomes nearer to the bottom of the slope, it gains speed and power, this can cause even the smallest of snowslides to be a major disaster. The word avalanche is derived from the French word avalance meaning descent. An avalanche is a mass of snow, often mixed with ice and debris which travels down mountain sides, destroying all in its path.

TYPES OF AVALANCHES There are two common types of avalanches,. 1) Surface Avalanche 2) Full-Depth Avalanche

1) Surface Avalanche A Surface Avalanche that occurs when a layer of snow with different properties slides over another layer of snow. For example, when a layer of dry loosely packed snow slides over a dense layer of wet snow

2) Full-Depth Avalanche its name would lead you to believe, occurs when an entire snow cover, from the earth to the surface, slides over the ground. The nature of the failure of the snowpack is used to morphologically classify the avalanche. To this point, there are two main types of avalanches: loose snow avalanches slab avalanches either type of avalanche can involve dry or wet snow.

For this reason, professionals refer to avalanches as 1) dry loose snow avalanches 2) wet loose snow avalanches 3) dry slab avalanches 4) wet slab avalanches Loose snow avalanches most common in steeper terrain, often occur in freshly fallen, low-density surface snow, or in older surface snow that has been softened by strong solar radiation. In loose snow avalanches, the release usually starts at a point and the avalanche gradually widens as it travels down the slope and entrains more snow. The characteristic shape of a loose snow avalanche is usually described as resembling a teardrop. Large, loose snow avalanches may cause slab avalanches.

A POWDER SNOW AVALANCHE IN THE HIMALAYAS NEAR MOUNT EVEREST.

slab avalanches Slab avalanches form frequently in new snow, wind deposited snow, and, less frequently, in old snow, and have the characteristic appearance of a block of snow cut out from its surroundings by fractures. Elements of slab avalanches include the following: a crown fracture at the top of the start zone, flank fractures on the sides of the start zones, and a fracture at the bottom called the stauchwall.

Slab avalanches, which account for around 90% of avalanche-related fatalities, form when the application of dynamic forces causes catastrophic structural failure inside a weakness below a slab of snow. Energy for fracture propagation is provided by gravity as the slab falls onto the weak layer . Fracture propagation can be widespread, sometimes traveling for hundreds of meters, and in some cases kilometers, and can involve snow depths ranging from 10 centimeters to five or six metres. Avalanches that form when the failure occurs between the base of the snowpack and the ground are known as full depth slab avalanches.

Among the largest and most powerful of avalanches, dry slab avalanches can exceed speeds of 300 km/h, and masses of 10,000,000 tonnes; their flows can travel long distances along flat valley bottoms and even uphill for short distances. A powder snow avalanche is a turbulent cloud of snow and air that forms when an avalanche travels over an abrupt change in slope angle, such as a cliff band. Powder snow avalanches may also form when the powder cloud of a dry slab avalanche continues moving after the core of the avalanche has stopped.

There are two main types of slab avalanches, 1) soft slab avalanches 2) hard slab avalanche Both types of avalanches are denoted by debris morphology: the debris from a soft slab avalanche is highly granular, resembling a slurry of snowballs and ice grain paste the debris from a hard slab avalanche is angular, often featuring pieces of the original slab that did not break up during descent. Avalanches that descend significant vertical or horizontal distances may create debris that is not suitable for classification purposes.

WHAT CAUSES AVALANCHES?

three primary elements of avalanches: terrain, weather, and snowpack. Terrain describes the places where avalanches occur weather describes the meteorological conditions that create the snowpack snowpack describes the structural characteristics of snow that make avalanche formation possible.

TERRAIN
In steep avalanche-prone terrain, traveling on ridges is generally safer than traversing the slopes. Avalanche formation requires a slope where snow can accumulate, yet has enough steepness for the snow to accelerate once set in motion by the combination of mechanical failure (of the snowpack) and gravity. The angle of the slope that can hold snow, called the angle of repose, depends on a variety of factors such as crystal form and moisture content.

On most hills, avalanche hazard can be avoided by sensible choice of route. Slope angle. Most large slab avalanches run on slopes between 25 and 45 degrees. This range includes the average angle of coire backwalls and approach slopes to crags. Ground surface. Smooth ground such as rock slab is pre-disposed to full-depth avalanches. Rough ground such as large boulders will tend to anchor base layers in position, making avalanches less likely. Once these boulders are covered, however, surface avalanche activity is unhindered.

Slope profile. Convex slopes are generally more hazardous than uniform or concave slopes. The point of maximum convexity is a frequent site of tension fractures, with the release of slab avalanches. (Fig. 3) Ridges or Buttresses are better choices than open slopes and gullies when avalanche conditions prevail. The crests of main mountain ridges are usually protected from avalanche, while in climbing situations, rock belays on ribs and buttresses can often provide security. Lee Slopes should be avoided after storms or heavy drifting. Their location will obviously vary according to wind direction, but will include the sheltered side of ridges and plateau rims.

WEATHER

Avalanches can only occur in a standing snowpack. Typically winter seasons at high latitudes, high altitudes, or both, have weather that is sufficiently unsettled and cold enough for precipitated snow to accumulate into a seasonal snowpack. Continentality, reflected by the distance from the moderating effects of oceans, is another important factor. Among the critical factors controlling snowpack evolution are: heating by the sun, radiational cooling, vertical temperature gradients in standing snow, snowfall amounts, and snow types. Generally, mild winter weather will promote the settlement and stabilization of the snowpack; and conversely very cold, windy, or hot weather will weaken the snowpack.

When a temperature gradient greater than 10 C change per vertical meter of snow is sustained for more than a day, angular crystals called depth hoar or facets begin forming in the snowpack because of rapid moisture transport along the temperature gradient. These angular crystals, which bond poorly to one another and the surrounding snow, often become a persistent weakness in the snowpack. When a slab lying on top of a persistent weakness is loaded by a force greater than the strength of the slab and persistent weak layer, the persistent weak layer can fail and generate an avalanche.

Any wind stronger than a light breeze can contribute to a rapid accumulation of snow on sheltered slopes downwind. Wind slab forms quickly and, if present, weaker snow below the slab may not have time to adjust to the new load. Even on a clear day, wind can quickly load a slope with snow by blowing snow from one place to another. Top-loading occurs when wind deposits snow from the top of a slope; cross-loading occurs when wind deposits snow parallel to the slope. When a wind blows over the top of a mountain, the leeward, or downwind, side of the mountain experiences toploading, from the top to the bottom of that lee slope. When the wind blows across a ridge that leads up the mountain, the leeward side of the ridge is subject to cross-loading. Crossloaded wind-slabs are usually difficult to identify visually. Snowstorms and rainstorms are important contributors to avalanche danger. Heavy snowfall will cause instability in the existing snowpack, both because of the additional weight and because the new snow has insufficient time to bond to underlying snow layers. Rain has a similar effect.

In the short-term, rain causes instability because, like a heavy snowfall, it imposes an additional load on the snowpack; and, once rainwater seeps down through the snow, it acts as a lubricant, reducing the natural friction between snow layers that holds the snowpack together. Most avalanches happen during or soon after a storm. Daytime exposure to sunlight will rapidly destabilize the upper layers of the snowpack if the sunlight is strong enough to melt the snow, thereby reducing its hardness. During clear nights, the snowpack can refreeze when ambient air temperatures fall below freezing, through the process of long-wave radiative cooling, or both. Radiative heat loss occurs when the night air is significantly cooler than the snowpack, and the heat stored in the snow is re-radiated into the atmosphere.

This is the most important factor in determining whether avalanches are likely, and the evolution of the snowpack is entirely dependent on this. However, as the mountaineer can study both of these, it is useful to do so. Many weather variables affect avalanche release and information can often be gained before setting out. Readouts from summit weather stations can be beneficial. The information provided on temperature, wind speed and direction often enables useful predictions to be made before leaving home. For instance, if a SW wind of 25mph is indicated with freezing temperatures and snow known to be lying, then it may be assumed that some avalanche hazard will be building on NE - facing slopes. Local advice can often be obtained regarding recent weather, while forecasts are always available. Remember that mountain weather is particularly difficult to predict and the likely influence of unexpected changes in weather, both on your own expectation as to snow stability should be considered.

SNOWPACK

The snowpack is composed of ground-parallel layers that accumulate over the winter. Each layer contains ice grains that are representative of the distinct meteorological conditions during which the snow formed and was deposited. Once deposited, a snow layer continues to evolve under the influence of the meteorological conditions that prevail after deposition. For an avalanche to occur, it is necessary that a snowpack have a weak layer (or instability) below a slab of cohesive snow.

In practice the formal mechanical and structural factors related to snowpack instability are not directly observable outside of laboratories, thus the more easily observed properties of the snow layers (e.g. penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are used as index measurements of the mechanical properties of the snow (e.g. tensile strength, friction coefficients, shear strength, and ductile strength). This results in two principal sources of uncertainty in determining snowpack stability based on snow structure: First, both the factors influencing snow stability and the specific characteristics of the snowpack vary widely within small areas and time scales, resulting in significant difficulty extrapolating point observations of snow layers across different scales of space and time.

Second, the relationship between readily observable snowpack characteristics and the snowpack's critical mechanical properties has not been completely developed.

While the deterministic relationship between snowpack characteristics and snowpack stability is still a matter of ongoing scientific study, there is a growing empirical understanding of the snow composition and deposition characteristics that influence the likelihood of an avalanche. Observation and experience has shown that newly fallen snow requires time to bond with the snow layers beneath it, especially if the new snow falls during very cold and dry conditions. If ambient air temperatures are cold enough, shallow snow above or around boulders, plants, and other discontinuities in the slope, weakens from rapid crystal growth that occurs in the presence of a critical temperature gradient.

Large, angular snow crystals are an indicator weak snow, because such crystals have fewer bonds per unit volume than small, rounded crystals that pack tightly together. Consolidated snow is less likely to slough than loose powdery layers or wet isothermal snow; however, consolidated snow is a necessary condition for the occurrence of slab avalanches, and persistent instabilities within the snowpack can hide below wellconsolidated surface layers. Uncertainty associated with the empirical understanding of the factors influencing snow stability leads most professional avalanche workers to recommend conservative use of avalanche terrain relative to current snowpack instability.

During examining the snow back the following features should be looked for: Adjacent layers of different hardness. Water drops squeezed out of a snowball made from any layer. Layers of ice. Layers of graupel (rounded, heavily rimmed pellets). These act like a layer of ball bearings in the snowpack.

Feathery or faceted crystals. Layers of loose, uncohesive grains. Air space. Very soft layers. (fist penetrates easily) Any of the above might be the source of a dangerous weakness in the snowpack.

These observations may be supplemented by a shovel test . For this, a shovel is not necessary. Your ice axe and gloved hands will sufficent. Having made the snowpit observations, isolate a wedge shaped block, cutting down to the top of the next identified layer. If the top layer then slides spontaneously, clearly a very poor bond exists between the layers. If it does not, then try to rate the ease with which you can pull the block off by inserting your shovel/axes/hands behind the block and pulling. Do this for each suspect layer in your pit. Performing this test many times will help you to build up a "feeling" for the stability of the layers.

Techniques such as this should enable you to make an educated hazard assessment. Remember that your snowpit observations will hold good only for slopes of similar orientation and altitude to your test pit. You will need to extrapolate for situations higher up, for instance below cornices, where surface wind slab layers may be much thicker, etc. An attempt should be made to rate the slope Safe, Marginal, or Unsafe. Even if a slope is Marginal or Unsafe, it may be possible to choose a safe route by careful selection.

CORNICES
Many avalanches are cornice-triggered. In general, climbing below cornices should be avoided: During snow storms or heavy drifting Immediately (24-48 hours) after these. During heavy thaw or sudden temperature rise. When walking above cornices, take care to give them a wide berth. Fig. 2 below, shows the possible fracture line.

PREVENTION

preventative measures are employed in areas where avalanches pose a significant threat to people, such as ski resorts and mountain towns, roads and railways. There are several ways to prevent avalanches and lessen their power and destruction; active preventative measures reduce the likelihood and size of avalanches by disrupting the structure of the snowpack; passive measures reinforce and stabilize the snowpack in situ. The simplest active measure is by repeatedly traveling on a snowpack as snow accumulates; this can be by means of boot-packing, ski-cutting, or machine grooming. Explosives are used extensively to prevent avalanches, by triggering smaller avalanches that break down instabilities in the snowpack, and removing over burden that can result in larger avalanches.

Explosive charges are delivered by a number of methods including hand tossed charges, helicopter dropped bombs, Gazex concussion lines, and ballistic projectiles launched by air cannons and artillery. Passive preventive systems such as Snow fences and light walls can be used to direct the placement of snow. Snow builds up around the fence, especially the side that faces the prevailing winds. Downwind of the fence, snow buildup is lessened. This is caused by the loss of snow at the fence that would have been deposited and the pickup of the snow that is already there by the wind, which was depleted of snow at the fence. When there is a sufficient density of trees, they can greatly reduce the strength of avalanches. They hold snow in place and when there is an avalanche, the impact of the snow against the trees slows it down. Trees can either be planted or they can be conserved, such as in the building of a ski resort, to reduce the strength of avalanches.

To mitigate the effect of avalanches, artificial barriers can be very effective in reducing avalanche damage. There are several types. One kind of barrier (snow net) uses a net strung between poles that are anchored by guy wires in addition to their foundations. These barriers are similar to those used for rockslides. Another type of barrier is a rigid fence-like structure (snow fence) and may be constructed of steel, wood or pre-stressed concrete. They usually have gaps between the beams and are built perpendicular to the slope, with reinforcing beams on the downhill side. Rigid barriers are often considered unsightly, especially when many rows must be built. They are also expensive and vulnerable to damage from falling rocks in the warmer months.

In addition to industrially manufactured barriers, landscaped barriers, called avalanche dams stop or deflect avalanches with their weight and strength. These barriers are made out of concrete, rocks or earth. They are usually placed right above the structure, road or railway that they are trying to protect, although they can also be used to channel avalanches into other barriers. Occasionally, earth mounds are placed in the avalanche's path to slow it down. Finally, along transportation corridors, large shelters, called snow sheds, can be built directly in the slide path of an avalanche to protect traffic from avalanches.

SAFETY

Terrain management - it involves reducing the exposure of an individual to the risks of traveling in avalanche terrain by carefully selecting what areas of slopes to travel on. Features to be cognizant of include not under cutting slopes (removing the physical support of the snowpack), not traveling over convex rolls (areas where the snowpack is under tension), staying away from weaknesses like exposed rock, and avoiding areas of slopes that expose one to terrain traps (gulleys that can be filled in, cliffs over which one can be swept, or heavy timber into which one can be carried). Group management - Group management is the practice of reducing the risk of having a member of a group, or a whole group involved in an avalanche. Minimize the number of people on the slope, and maintain separation. Ideally one person should pass over the slope into an area protected from the avalanche hazard before the next one leaves protective cover. Route selection should also consider what dangers lie above and below the route, and the consequences of an unexpected avalanche (i.e., unlikely to occur, but deadly if it does).

Stop or camp only in safe locations. Wear warm gear to delay hypothermia if buried. In determining the size of the group balance the hazard of not having enough people to effectively carry out a rescue with the risk of having too many members of the group to safely manage the risks. It is generally recommended not to travel alone, because there will be no-one to witness your burial and start the rescue. Additionally, avalanche risk increases with use; that is, the more a slope is disturbed by skiers, the more likely it is that an avalanche will occur. Most important of all practice good communication within a group including clearly communicating the decisions about safe locations, escape routes, and slope choices, and having a clear understanding of every members skills in snow travel, avalanche rescue, and route finding.

Risk Factor Awareness - Risk factor awareness in avalanche safety requires gathering and accounting for a wide range of information such as the meteorological history of the area, the current weather and snow conditions, and equally important the social and physical indicators of the group. Leadership - Leadership in avalanche terrain requires well defined decision-making protocols that use the observed risk factors. These decision-making frameworks are taught in a variety of courses provided by national avalanche resource centers in Europe and North America. Fundamental to leadership in avalanche terrain is honestly assessing and estimating the information that was ignored or overlooked. Recent research has shown that there are strong psychological and group dynamic determinants that lead to avalanche involvement. Control measures: In many areas, regular avalanche tracks can be identified and precautions can be taken to minimise damage, such as the prevention of development in these areas, the construction of avalanche sheds over existing roads and railways and the use of tunnels for new road and rail links. Avalanches cause danger when their path cannot be predicted and are a major hazard for skiers and mountaineers.

TRAVEL IN HAZARD AREAS

It is rarely essential to negotiate an avalanche-prone slope. It is usually possible to find another way, or retreat. 90% OF ALL AVALANCHES INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS ARE TRIGGERED BY THEIR VICTIMS. If it is essential to proceed, the following should be borne in mind: Solo travellers in avalanche terrain run particularly grave hazards. Skiers are in greater danger than walkers - the lateral cutting action of skis readily releases unstable snow. All off-piste skiers should use avalanche transceivers and have them SWITCHED ON before leaving base. They should carry collapsible probes and shovels. Climbers and walkers should also consider the use of these items. Direct descent or ascent is safer than traversing. Go one at a time - the others should closely observe the progress of the person on the suspect slope. Close up clothing. Wrap scarf or other item around mouth and nose. Belay if possible. This is rarely feasible on wide, open slopes.

IF CAUGHT
In most avalanche situations, any defensive action is very difficult. Movement relative to the debris is often impossible. However, some of the following may be useful. Try to delay departure by plunging ice axe into the under surface. This may help to keep you near the top of the slide. Shout. Others may see you. Try to run to the side, or jump up slope above the fracture. If hard slab, try to remain on the top of a block. Get rid of gear, sacks, skis etc. Try to roll like a log off the debris. Swimming motions sometimes help. As the avalanche slows down, you may be able to get some purchase on the debris. Make a desperate effort to get to the surface, or at least get a hand through.

IF BURIED
Keep one hand in front of your face and try to clear/maintain an air space. Try to maintain space for chest expansion by taking and holding a deep breath. Try to avoid panic and conserve energy. Your companions are probably searching for you.

AVALANCHE RESCUE

If you witness an avalanche burial: Observe the victim's progress and if possible mark the point of entry and point at which last seen. Check for further avalanche danger. Make a QUICK SEARCH of the debris surface. - LOOK for any signs of the victim. - LISTEN for any sounds. - PROBE the most likely burial spots. Make a SYSTEMATIC SEARCH, probing the debris with axes or poles. Send for help. KEEP SEARCHING until help arrives. remember, you are the buried victim's only real chance of live rescue. Although survival chances decline rapidly with duration of burial, they do not reach zero for a long time.