Chapter Nine

Measurement & Scaling

Chapter Objectives
Identify the four levels of measurement under which numbers generated through a survey can be classified. Distinguish among attributes, behavioral variables, beliefs, and attitudes. List and describe five methods for inferring people's attitudes.

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|2

Chapter Objectives (Contd)

Discuss the various dimensions on which rating scales can vary. Apply the formats of Likert, semanticdifferential, and Stapel scales and discuss how data generated by these scales are analyzed and interpreted. Define validity, reliability, and sensitivity of a scale.

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|3

Harris Interactive: U.S.Based Survey Reputation Score of Top Ten Corporations

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|4

Harris Interactive: U.S. Based Survey Six Dimensions of Reputation

Emotional Appeal

Products and Services

Reputation Workplace Environment

Financial Performance Vision and Leadership Social Responsibility

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|5

20 Attributes of the Six Dimensions Measured Using a 7 Point Scale

Emotional Appeal
Like Respect Trust

Workplace Environment
Well managed Appealing workplace Employee Talent

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|6

20 Attributes of the Six Dimensions Measured Using a 7 Point Scale (Contd)

Products and Services
Innovative Strong brand Quality Value

Social Responsibility
Citizenship Environmental stewardship Ethics

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|7

Six Dimensions and Its Scales

Vision and Leadership
Clear values Strong leadership Inspiring vision

Financial Performance
Growth prospects Past results Recognizes opportunities Low risk

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|8

Measurement
Measurement is the assignment of numbers to observations [or responses] according to some set of rules

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9|9

Measurement Levels
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 10

Nominal-Scaled Responses
Numbers forming a nominal scale are no more than labels used solely to identify different categories of responses Example: What is your sex?
Male Female

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 11

Nominal-Scaled Responses (Contd)

Which one of the following media influences your purchasing decisions the most?
Television Radio Newspapers Magazines Internet

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 12

Central Tendency Mode

The mode is the most frequent category only statistics applicable to nominal variable

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 13

Ordinal-Scaled Responses
An ordinal scale is more powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order How long do you spend reading newspapers on a typical weekday?
Less than 5 minutes 5 minutes to less than 15 minutes 15 minutes to less than 30 minutes 30 minutes or more

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 14

Mode and Median

The mode and the median are the most meaningful measures of central tendency for ordinal-scaled responses Median the category in which the 50th percentile response falls when all responses are arranged from lowest to highest (or vice versa)

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 15

Consider the following distribution of responses to the question about reading newspapers
In this case, the mode is category 1, and the median is category 2.
Response Category Percentage of Respondents Checking Category

1
2 3 4

40
25 25 10

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 16

Interval-Scaled Responses
An interval scale has all the properties of an ordinal scale and the differences between the scale values can be meaningfully interpreted

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 17

Interval-Scaled Responses (Contd)

How likely are you to buy a new automobile within the next six months?
(Please check the most appropriate category.)
Will definitely not buy Extremely unlikely Unlikely Likely _____ (1) _____ (2) _____ (3) _____ (4) _____ (5) _____ (6)
9 | 18

Extremely likely
Will definitely buy
Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Exhibit 9.1 Impact of Arbitrariness of an Interval Scales Starting Point

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 19

Ratio-Scaled Responses
Ratio scales possess all the properties of an interval scale and the ratios of numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations What is your annual income before taxes? $______ How far is your workplace from your home? _____ miles

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 20

Classes of Variables
Attributes Behavior Beliefs Attitudes

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 21

Attitudes
Attitudes are similar to beliefs, except that they also involve respondents evaluative judgments For instance, do respondents feel print advertisements for cigarettes should be banned?

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 22

Attitudes Conceptually and Operationally

A conceptual definition of attitude may be a predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to a stimulus object An operational definition of attitude refers to a persons attitude towards a particular retail store that may be measured as the total of the persons expressed degree of agreement, on a 5-point, strongly agree to strongly disagree scale, with each of a set of 20 evaluative statements about various aspects of the retail store

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 23

Attitude Scaling
Attitudes
Widely believed to be a key determinant of behavior Can only be inferred and cannot be directly ascertained

Measures in which inferences are drawn from

Observed overt behavior Individual's reaction Performance on objective tasks Physiological reactions

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 24

Observing Overt Behavior

Observation of overt behavior is useful when other attitude measurement methods are inconvenient or infeasible An observation study can be used to ascertain the attitudes of very young children toward a variety of toys

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 25

Analyzing Reactions to Partially Structured Stimuli

Projective Techniques
The approach of analyzing reactions to partially structured stimuli involves asking respondents to react to or describe in some fashion, an incomplete, vague stimulus

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 26

Evaluating Performance on Objective Tasks

To evaluate performance on objective tasks, respondents are asked to complete an ostensibly objective, well-defined task The nature of their performance is then analyzed to infer their attitudes

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 27

Monitoring Physiological Responses

Monitoring physiological responses is based on the premise that a person's emotional reactions to a stimulus will be accompanied by corresponding involuntary physiological changes

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 28

Self-report Measurements of Attitudes

This method involves asking respondents relatively direct questions concerning attitudes toward whatever is of interest to the researcher The questions are typically in the form of rating scales on which respondents check off appropriate positions that best reflect their feelings

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 29

Graphic Formats
A graphic rating scale presents a continuum, in the form of a straight line, along which a theoretically infinite number of ratings are possible Example: Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by placing a mark at an appropriate position on the line below.
Very Bad
Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Very Good
9 | 30

Itemized Formats
Itemized rating scales have a set of distinct response categories Any suggestion of an attitude continuum underlying the categories is implicit They essentially take the form of the multiplecategory questions

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 31

Comparative Assessments
Comparative Rating Scale
Provides all respondents with a common frame of reference Allows the researcher to be confident that all respondents are answering the same question

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 32

Non-comparative Assessments
Non-comparative Rating Scale
Implicitly permits respondents to use any frame of reference or no frame of reference at all

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 33

Forced Response Choices

A forced-choice scale does not give respondents the option of expressing a neutral or middle-ground attitude

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 34

Forced Response Choices (Contd)

Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by checking one of the following categories: Very Bad Bad [ ] [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 Neither Bad Very nor Good Good Good [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 5 6 7 8 9

What is your overall rating of eBay in comparison with other auction sites? Much worse ( ) Worse About the same Better ( ) ( ) ( ) Much better ( )
9 | 35

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Non-forced Response Choices

A non-forced-choice scale give respondents the option to express a neutral attitude

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 36

Non-forced Response Choices (Contd)

Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by placing a mark in the category that best summarizes your feelings. Very Bad [ ] [ ] 1 2 Very Good [ ] [ ] 8 9

[
3

[
4

[ ] 5

[ ] 6

[
7

What is your overall rating of eBay in comparison with other auction sites? Much worse ( ) Worse ( ) Better ( ) Much better ( )
9 | 37

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Balanced Response Choices

A balanced scale is one that has an equal number of positive/favorable and negative/unfavorable response choices

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 38

Balanced Response Choices (Contd)

Indicate your overall opinion about eBay by checking one of the following categories:
Very Bad Bad [ ] [ ] [ ] 1 2 3 Neither Bad Very nor Good Good Good [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] 5 6 7 8 9

What is your overall rating of eBay in comparison with other auction sites?
Much worse ( ) Worse About the same Better Much better ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 39

Unbalanced Response Choices

An unbalanced rating scale that can be used if respondents opinions about a subject are anticipated to be predominantly positive

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 40

Labeled Response Choices

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 41

Unlabeled Response Choices

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 42

Exhibit 9.2 Rating Scales with Picture Labels

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 43

Number of Scale Positions

A scale with a large number of positions will not be meaningful if respondents are unable to make fine mental distinctions with respect to whatever is being measured More precise measurements should result as the number of scale positions increase

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 44

Paired Comparison Scale

In each of the following pairs, which store do you think is better? (please check one online auction site within each pair) _______ Amazon or _______ eBay _______ eBay or _______ Yahoo! Auction _______ PriceLine.com or _______ eBay _______ eBay or _______ Ubid.com

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 45

Commonly Used Multiple-item Scales

Likert Scale Semantic-Differential Scale Stapel Scale

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 46

Table 9.2 Likert Scale Items

Strongly Disagree 1. 2. The online auction site contains an abundance of exhibits User registration is complex at this site The auction site commission is reasonable The auction site responds to complaints quickly The auction site is not careful with personal information The auction site support system is confusing Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

________
________

________
________

________
________

________
________

________
________

3. 4. 5. 6.

________ ________ ________ ________

________ ________ ________ ________

________ ________ ________ ________

________ ________ ________ ________

________ ________ ________ ________

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 47

Exhibit 9.3 Semantic-Differential Scale Items

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 48

Exhibit 9.4 Pictorial Profiles Based on Semantic-Differential Ratings

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 49

Table 9.3 Stapel Scale

Abundanc e of Exhibits +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3 Complex User Registration +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3

Low Commission
+5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3

Good Response to Complaints +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3

Poor Protection of Personal Information +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3

Confusing Support System +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 -1 -2 -3

-4
-5

-4
-5

-4
-5

-4
-5

-4
-5

-4
-5

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 50

Strengths Of Multiple-Item Scales

Validity
Content validity Construct validity Predictive validity

Reliability
Test-retest reliability Split-half reliability

Sensitivity

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 51

Validity
The validity of a scale is the extent to which it is a true reflection of the underlying variable it is attempting to measure

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 52

Content Validity
Face validity or content validity is the extent to which the content of a measurement scale seems to tap all relevant facets of an issue that can influence respondents attitudes

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 53

Exhibit 9.5 Types of Equivalence

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 54

Construct Validity
Construct Validity is the nature of the underlying variable or construct measured by the scale

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 55

Predictive Validity
Predictive Validity refers to how well the attitude measure provided by the scale predicts some other variable or characteristic

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 56

Reliability
Reliability measures how consistent or stable the ratings generated by the scale are likely to be

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 57

Test-Retest Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability measures the stability of ratings over time and involves administering the scale to the same group of respondents at two different times

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 58

Split-Half Reliability
Split-Half Reliability measures the degree of consistency across items within a scale and can only be assessed for multiple-item scales

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 59

Sensitivity
Sensitivity focuses specifically on its ability to detect subtle differences in the attitudes being measured

Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

9 | 60