Surface Technology Outline

Introduction
Surface Technology outline

Surface Technology
Fabrication of Microelectronic devices
Surfaces
Chapter 31 Integrity Structure Texture Roughness
Tribology
Chapter 32 Friction Wear Lubrication
Surface Treatment
Chapter 33 Burnishing Hardening Deposition Implantation Coatings Cleaning
Chapter 34
Institut Teknologi Bandung
Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication

Ir. Tri Prakosa, M. Eng.
Proses Manufaktur II, Januari 2010
1. INTRODUCTION
1. lntroduction
Throughout the text so far, it has been
emphasized that friction, wear, and lubrication significantly influence the technology and economics of manufacturing operations. With the nature and extent of wear that tools and dies undergo, they eventually require reconditioning and replacement. In the United States alone, the total cost of replacing parts because of wear is estimated to be more than $100 billion per year.
1. lntroduction
Although you have read about the general
effects of friction and wear in manufacturing processes, this book has not yet described the fundamental mechanisms by which friction and wear occur during the interaction of workpieces, dies, and tools. Only after understanding these interactions can we begin to recommend appropriate materials and lubricants to meet specific requirements for friction and wear.
1. lntroduction
This chapter discusses those aspects of
tribology (which encompasses friction, wear, and lubrication) that are relevant to manufacturing processes. After establishing the technological basis of friction and wear, this chapter presents the fundamentals of lubrication and the metalworking fluids commonly used in manufacturing operations.
2. Friction in Metals
Friction is defined as the resistance to relative
motion between two bodies in contact under a normal load. Friction plays an important role in all metalworking and manufacturing processes because of the relative motion and forces that are always acting on tools, dies, and workpieces. Friction dissipates energy, thus generating heat, which can have detrimental effects on an operation.
7 Institut Teknologi Bandung
Furthermore, because it impedes free
movement at interfaces, friction can significantly affect the flow and deformation of materials in metalworking processes. However, friction is not always undesirable. Without friction, for example, rolling metals, clamping workpieces on machines, or holding drills in chucks would be impossible. One of the most commonly accepted theories of friction is the adhesion theory.
It is based on the observation that two clean
and dry surfaces, regardless of how smooth they are, contact each other (junction) at only a fraction of their apparent area of contact.
Ilustrasi skematik dari pertemuan permukaan dua benda yang berkontak, memperlihatkan area kontak yang sebenarnya. Pada permukaan teknik, perbandingan permukaan dengan area kontak sebenarnya dapat mencapai 4-5.
The slope of the hills on these surfaces has been
shown to range typically between 5" and 15". In such a situation, the normal (contact) load N is supported by the minute asperities (small projections from the surface) in contact with each other. The normal stresses at these asperities therefore are high, causing plastic deformation at the junctions. This contact creates an adhesive bond between the asperities.
In other words, the asperities form microwelds. Cold pressure welding (see Section 28.2) is
based on this principle. Sliding motion between two bodies having such an interface is possible only if a tangential force is applied. This tangential force is the force required to shear the junctions and is called the friction force (F).
11
The ratio of F to N is called the coefficient of
friction ().
12
In addition to the force required for breaking
these junctions by shearing, a ploughing force can also be present if one surface scratches the other. This force can contribute significantly to friction at the interface.
13
Ploughing may either cause displacement of the
material or produce small chips or slivers, as in cutting and abrasive processes
Pembentukan geram dan pembuangan material permukaan bendakerja oleh butir abrasif.
Depending on the materials and the process

variables involved, coefficients of friction in manufacturing vary significantly, as you can see in this Table.
Daerah Koefisien Gesek pada Proses Pengerjaan Logam
Coefficient of friction () Process Rolling Forging Drawing Sheet-metal forming Machining
15
Cold 0.050.1 0.050.1 0.030.1 0.050.1 0.52
Hot 0.20.7 0.10.2 0.10.2

Almost all the energy dissipated in overcoming
friction is converted into heat (a small fraction becomes stored energy in the plastically deformed regions), raising the interface temperature. Temperature increases with friction, speed, and low thermal conductivity and specific heat of the sliding materials. The interface temperature may be high enough to soften and even melt the surfaces, as well as cause structural changes.
These phenomena, in turn, adversely affect the
operations involved, causing surface damage. Temperature also affects the viscosity and other properties of lubricants, causing their breakdown. Note, for example, how butter and oils burn and degrade when temperatures are excessive.
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3. FRICTION IN PLASTICS AND CERAMICS

3. Friction in Plastics and Ceramics

Although their strength is low compared to
metals, plastics generally possess low frictional characteristics. This property makes polymers attractive for bearings, gears, seals, prosthetic joints, and general friction-reducing applications. In fact, polymers are sometimes called selflubricating. The factors involved in friction and metal wear are also generally applicable to polymers.
19

In sliding, the ploughing component of friction in
thermoplastics and elastomers is a significant factor because of their viscoelastic behavior (exhibiting both viscous and elastic behavior) and subsequent hysteresis loss (see Fig. 7.12). You can simulate this condition by dragging a dulI nail across the surface of a rubber tire. An important factor in plastics applications is the effect of temperature rise at the sliding interfaces caused by friction.
20

Thermoplastics lose their strength and become
soft as temperature increases. Their low thermal conductivity and low melting points are significant in terms of heat generation by friction. If the temperature rise is not controlled, sliding surfaces can undergo deformation and thermal degradation. The frictional behavior of various polymers relative to metals is similar to that of metals on metals.

The well-known low friction of PTFE (Teflon) is
attributed to its molecular structure, in that no reaction takes place between PTFE and metals. Thus adhesion is poor and friction is low. In view of the importance of ceramics, their frictional behavior is now being studied intensively. Initial investigations indicate that the origin of friction in ceramics is similar to that in metals. Thus adhesion and ploughing at interfaces contribute to the friction force in ceramics.
4. REDUCING FRICTION
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4. Reducing Friction
Friction can be reduced by selecting materials
that have low adhesion, such as carbides and ceramics, and by using surface films and coatings. Lubricants, such as oils, or solid films, such as graphite, interpose an adherent film between tool, die, and workpiece. The film minimizes adhesion and interactions of one surface to the other, thus reducing friction.
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4. Reducing Friction
Friction can also be reduced significantly by
subjecting the die-workpiece interface to ultrasonic vibrations, generally at 20 kHz. These vibrations momentarily separate die and workpiece, thus allowing the lubricant to flow more freely into the interface. An additional factor is the high-frequency variation of the relative velocity between die and workpiece, thus reducing the friction at the interface.
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5. FRICTION MEASUREMENT
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5. Friction Measurement
The coefficient of friction is usually determined
experimentally, either during actual manufacturing processes or in simulated tests using small-scale specimens of various shapes. The techniques used generally involve measurement of either forces or dimensional changes in the specimen.
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Because of difficulties involved in full-scale
experimentation on production equipment, particularly the high cost of interrupting production, small-scale tests simulating actual production conditions have been developed and used extensively. Unfortunately, many of these tests do not duplicate the exact conditions of the actual metalworking process, such as size of workpiece and its surface condition, the forces involved, and operating speed and temperature.
They can, however, be used to compare
different materials and lubricants. Ring compression test.
{ A test that has gained wide acceptance, particularly for bulk deformation processes such as forging, is the ring compression test. A flat ring is compressed plastically between two flat platens (Figure a).
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Ring Pengujian Tekan
(b)
Ring pengujian tekan diantara permukaan datar. (a) Pengaruh lubrikasi pada barel spesimen ring. (b) Hasil tes: (1) spesimen awal dan (2)-(4) friksi meningkat. Sumber: A. T. Male and M. G. Cockcroft.
{ { As its height is reduced, the ring expands radially outward. If friction at the interfaces is zero, both the inner and outer diameters of the ring expand as if it were a solid disk. With increasing friction, the internal diameter becomes smaller. This is due to the fact that an incremental decrease in the internal diameter involves a smaller contact area, hence less frictional energy, than an incremental increase of the same magnitude on the outer diameter.
{ {
31
{ For a particular reduction in height, there is a critical friction value at which the internal diameter increases (from the original) if is low and decreases if is high (Figure b).
(b)
32
{ By measuring the change in the specimen's internal diameter, and using the curves shown in Fig. 32.3, which are obtained through theoretical analyses, we can determine the coefficient of friction.
33
Koefisien Gesek dari Tes Ring

Grafik untuk menentukan koefisien gesek dari tes penekanan ring. Pengurakan ketinggian dan perubahan diameter dalam ring diukur; kemudian dibaca secara langsung dari grafik. Contoh: Jika spesimen ring mengalami pengurangan ketinggian 40% dan diameter dalamnya berkurang 10%, koefisien geseknya adalah 0.10
{ { Each ring geometry has its own specific set of curves. The most common geometry has outer diameter to inner diameter to height proportions of the specimen of 6 :3 :2. The actual size of the specimen usually is not relevant in these tests. Thus, once you know the percentage reductions in internal diameter and height, you can determine from the appropriate chart.
{ {
35
{ The major advantages of the ring compression test are that it does not require any force measurements and that it involves large-scale deformation of the workpiece material, as is the case in actual practice. This test can also be used for rating different metalworking fluids (also known as lubricants and coolants).
36
Example: Determination of coefficient of friction
In a ring compression test, a specimen 10 mm

in height with outside diameter OD = 30 mm and inside diameter ID = 15 mm is reduced in thickness by 50 percent. Determine the coefficient of friction if the OD after deformation is 38 mm. SOLUTION. It is first necessary to determine the new ID. It is obtained from volume constancy as follows:
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Example: Determination of coefficient of friction From this, the new ID = 9.7

mm. Thus the change in internal diameter is
For a 50 percent reduction

in height and a reduction in internal diameter of 37 percent, the following value is : = 0.21.
6. WEAR
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6. Wear
Wear is defined as the progressive loss or
removal of material from a surface. Wear has important technologic and economic significance because it changes the shape of workpiece, tool, and die interfaces. By doing so, it affects the process and size and quality of the parts produced. The magnitude of the wear problem is evident in the countless parts and components that continually have to be replaced or repaired.
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6. Wear
Examples of wear in manufacturing processes
are dull drills that have to be reground, worn cutting tools that have to be indexed or resharpened, and forming tools and dies that have to be repaired or replaced. Important components in some metalworking machinery are wear plates, which are subjected to high loads. These plates, also known as wearparts because they are expected to wear, can be replaced easily.
6. Wear
Although wear generally alters the surface
topography and may result in severe surface damage, it also has a beneficial effect: It can reduce surface roughness by removing the peaks from asperities (Fig. 32.4). Thus, under controlled conditions, wear may be regarded as a kind of smoothing or polishing process.
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Pengaruh Keausan pada Profil Permukaan
Perubahan dari profil awal (a) disikat dengan kawat dan (b) permukaan hasil penggerindaan setelah keausan. Sumber: E. Wild and K. J. Mack.
6. Wear
The running-in period for various machines and
engines produces this type of wear. Wear is usually classified as:
{ { { { { { { adhesive, abrasive, corrosive, fatigue, erosion, fretting, and impact.
The major types of wear relevant to manufacturing

operations are described as follow
6.1 Adhesive wear

If a tangential force is applied to the model
shown in this Figure,
shearing can take place either at the original interface or along a path below or above it (next Figure), causing adhesive wear.
6.1 Adhesive wear
Ilustrasi skematik (a) dua buah kontak, (b) gaya adhesif antara dua permukaan kontak, dan (c) terbentuknya partikel keausan.
6.1 Adhesive wear

The fracture path depends on whether or not
the strength of the adhesive bond of the asperities is greater than the cohesive strength of either of the two sliding bodies. Because of factors such as strain hardening at the asperity contact, diffusion, and mutual solid solubility, the adhesive bonds are often stronger than the base metals. Thus during sliding, fracture at the asperity usually follows a path in the weaker or softer component.
6.1 Adhesive wear

A wear fragment is then generated. Although this fragment is attached to the harder
component (upper member in the Figure), it eventually becomes detached during further rubbing at the interface and develops into a loose wear particle.
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6.1 Adhesive wear

This process is known as adhesive wear or
sliding wear. In more severe cases, such as high loads and strongly bonded asperities, adhesive wear is described as scuffing, smearing, tearing, galling, or seizure (severe wear). Oxide layers on surfaces greatly influence adhesive wear. They can act as a protective film, resulting in mild wear, consisting of small wear particles.
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6.1 Adhesive wear

Adhesive wear can be reduced by:
{ { { { Selecting materials that do not form strong adhesive bonds. Using a harder material as one of the pair. Using materials that oxidize more easily. Applying hard coatings that serve these functions (next lecture). Coating one surface with soft materials, such as tin, silver, lead, or cadmium, is also effective in reducing sliding wear.
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6.2 Abrasive wear

Abrasive wear is caused by a hard and rough
surface-or a surface containing hard, protruding particles-sliding across a surface. This type of wear removes by forming microchips or slivers, thereby producing grooves or scratches on the softer surface (Figure).
Ilustrasi skematik dari keausan abrasif pada luncuran. Goresan longitudinal pada permukaan biasanya menunjukkan keausan abrasif.
6.2 Abrasive wear

In fact, abrasive processes such as grinding and
ultrasonic machining and abrasive-jet machining act in this manner. The difference is that in those operations we control the process parameters to produce desired shapes and surfaces, whereas abrasive wear is unintended and unwanted. The abrasive wear resistance of pure metals and ceramics is directly proportional to their hardness.
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6.2 Abrasive wear

Abrasive wear can thus be reduced by
increasing the hardness of materials (such as by heat treating and microstructural changes) or by reducing the normal load. Other materials that resist abrasive wear are elastomers and rubbers, because they deform elastically and then recover when abrasive particles cross over their surfaces.
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6.2 Abrasive wear

The best example is automobile tires, which
have long lives even though they are operated on abrasive road surfaces. Even hardened steels would not last long under such conditions.
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6.3 Corrosive wear

Corrosive wear, also known as oxidation, or
chemical, wear, is caused by chemical or electrochemical reactions between the surface and the environment. The fine corrosive products on the surface constitute the wear particles. When the corrosive layer is destroyed or removed, as by sliding or abrasion, another layer begins to form, and the process of removal and corrosive-layer formation is repeated.
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6.3 Corrosive wear

Among corrosive media are water, seawater,
oxygen, acids and chemicals, and atmospheric hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. We can reduce corrosive wear by selecting materials that will resist environmental attack, controlling the environment, and reducing operating temperatures to lower the rate of chemical reaction.
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6.4 Fatigue wear

Fatigue wear, also called surface fatigue or
surface-fracture wear, is caused when the surface of a material is subjected to cyclic loading, such as in rolling contact in bearings. The wear particles are usually formed by spalling or pitting. Another type of wear is by thermal fatigue. Cracks on the surface are generated by thermal stresses from thermal cycling, such as a cool die repeatedly contacting hot workpieces (heat checking).
6.4 Fatigue wear

These cracks then join, and the surface begins
to spall, producing fatigue wear. This type of wear usually occurs in hot-working and die-casting dies. One can reduce fatigue wear by lowering contact stresses, reducing thermal cycling, and improving the quality of materials by removing impurities, inclusions, and various other flaws that may act as local points for crack initiation.
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6.5 Other types of wear

Several other types of wear are important in
manufacturing processes. Erosion is caused by loose abrasive particles abrading a surface. Fretting corrosion occurs at interfaces that are subjected to very small reciprocal movements. Impact wear is the removal of small amounts of materials from a surface by impacting particles. Deburring by vibratory finishing and tumbling (see Section 25.11) is an example of this type of wear.
In many cases component wear is the result of

a combination of different types of wear. Note in this Figure, that even in the same forging die, various types of wear take place in different locations.
Jenis-jenis keausan yang teramati pada die tunggal yang digunakan pada penempaan panas. Sumber: T. A. Dean

A similar situation exists in cutting tools, as
shown in these Figures:
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7. WEAR OF PLASTICS AND CERAMICS

7. Wear of Plastics and Ceramics

The wear behavior of plastics is similar to that of
metals. Thus weal- may occur in ways similar to those described in Section 32.6. Abrasive wear behavior depends partly on the ability of the polymer to deform and recover elastically, similar to the behavior of elastomers. There is evidence that the parameter describing this behavior may be the ratio of hardness to elastic modulus.
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Thus the abrasive wear resistance of the
polymer increases as this ratio increases. Typical polymers with good wear resistance are polyimides, nylons, polycarbonate, polypropylene, acetals, and high-density polyethylene. These polymers are molded or machined to make gears, pulleys, sprockets, and similar mechanical components.
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Because plastics can be made with a wide
variety of compositions, they can also be blended with internal lubricants, such as PTFE, silicon, graphite, and molybdenum disulfide, and with rubber particles that are interspersed within the polymer matrix.
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Wear of reinforced plastics.
Wear resistance of reinforced plastics depends

on the:
{ { { type, amount, and direction of reinforcement in the polymer matrix.
Carbon, glass, and aramid fibers all improve

wear resistance. Wear takes place when fibers are pulled out of the matrix (fiber pullout).
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Wear of reinforced plastics.
Wear is greatest when the sliding direction is

parallel to the fibers because they can be pulled out more easily. Long fibers increase the wear resistance of composites because they are more difficult to pull out, and cracks in the matrix cannot propagate to the surface as easily (see next Figure).
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Pengaruh Jenis Serat pada Nylon berpenguat Serat

Pengaruh jenis serat pada berbagai sifat nylon berpenguat serat. (6,6). Sumber: NASA.
Sifat-sifat mekanik dan fisik plastik yang diperkuat tergantung pada: Bentuk dan orientasi material yang diperkuat. Panjang serat yang digunakan. Volume fraksi material yang diperkuat.
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Wear of ceramics.
When ceramics slide against metals, wear is

caused by smallscale plastic deformation and brittle surface fracture, surface chemical reactions, ploughing, and possibly some fatigue. Metals can be transferred to the oxide-type ceramic surfaces, forming metal oxides. Thus sliding actually takes place between the metal and metal-oxide surface. Conventional lubricants do not appear to influence the wear of ceramics significantly.
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8. WEAR MEASUREMENT
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8. Wear Measurement
Several methods can be used to observe and
measure wear. The choice of a particular method depends on:
the accuracy desired and the physical constraints of the system, such as specimen or part size and difficulty of disassembly.
Although not quantitative, the simplest method

is visual and tactile (touching) inspection. Measuring dimensional changes, gaging the worn component, profilometry, and weighing are more accurate methods.
8. Wear Measurement
However, for large workpieces or tools and dies,
the weighing method is not accurate because the amount of wear is usually very small compared to the overall weight of the components involved. Performance and noise level can be monitored. Worn machinery components emit more noise than new parts.
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8. Wear Measurement
Radiography is a method in which wear
particles from an irradiated surface are transferred to the mating surface, which is then measured for the amount of radiation. An example is the transfer of wear particles from irradiated cutting tools to the back side of chips. In other situations, the lubricant can be analyzed for wear particles (spectroscopy).
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8. Wear Measurement
This is a precision method and is used widely
for applications such as checking jet-engine component wear.
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9. LUBRICATION
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9. Lubrication
It has been noted that the surfaces of tools,
dies, and workpieces are usually subjected to various processes with a wide range of parameters, such as:
contact pressures (ranging from very low values to multiples of the yield stress of the workpiece material), relative speeds (from very low to very high), and temperatures (ranging from ambient to melting).
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9. Lubrication
In addition to selecting appropriate materials
and controlling process parameters, we can also select metal working fluids to effectively reduce friction and wear. Lubrication is used extensively in all types of machinery and engines to reduce friction and wear. Although we generally think of lubricants as fluids, they can be effective in solid or semisolid forms as well.
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9.1 Types of lubrication

In thick-film lubrication, the surfaces are
completely separated, and lubricant viscosity is the important factor. Such films can develop in some regions of the workpiece in high-speed operations, and with high-viscosity lubricants that become trapped at die-workpiece interfaces. A thick lubricant film generates a dull, grainy surface appearance on the workpiece, the degree of roughness depending on grain size (see next Figure).
Permukaan Kasar
Permukaan kasar yang dihasilkan pada spesimen tekan aluminium dengan memberikan pelumas dengan viskositas tinggi dan kecepatan penekanan tinggi. Semakin kasar ukuran butir, semakin kasar permukaan. Sumber: A. Mulc and S. Kalpakjian.
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In operations such as coining and precision
forging, trapped lubricants are undesirable because they prevent accurate shape generation and produce rough surfaces. The lubricant film becomes thinner as the load between the die and workpiece increases or as the speed and viscosity of the metalworking fluid decreases (thin-film lubrication). This condition increases friction and leads to slight wear.
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Jenis-jenis Pelumasan
Jenis-jenis pelumasan yang sering terjadi pada operasi pengerjaan logam. Sumber: After W.R.D. Wilson.

In mixed lubrication, a significant portion of the
load is carried by the physical contact (boundary lubrication) of the two surfaces and the rest by the fluid film trapped in pockets, such as the valleys of asperities. In boundary lubrication, the load is supported by contacting surfaces covered with a boundary layer of lubricant, typically natural oils, fats, fatty acids, and soaps, thus preventing direct metalto-metal contact and reducing wear.
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However, boundary films can break down
because of desorption caused by high temperatures at the interface or can be rubbed off during sliding. Deprived of this protective film, the metal surfaces may then wear and score severely.
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9.2 Other considerations

The valleys in the surface roughnesses of the
contacting bodies can serve as local reservoirs or pockets for lubricants, supporting a substantial portion of the load. The workpiece, not the die, should have the rougher surface; otherwise, the rougher and harder die surface may act like a file, damaging the workpiece surface. The recommended surface roughness on most dies is about 0.4 m (15 in.).
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9.2 Other considerations

The overall geometry of the interacting bodies is
also an important consideration in ensuring proper lubrication. The movement of the workpiece into the deformation zone, such as in wire drawing, extrusion, and rolling, should allow a supply of lubricant to be carried into the die-workpiece interface. With proper selection of process parameters, a relatively thick lubricant film can be entrained and maintained.
10. METALWORKING FLUIDS
86
10. Metalworking Fluids

On the basis of previous discussions, the
functions of metalworking fluids can be summarized as follows:
Reduce friction, thus reducing force and energy requirements and temperature rise. Reduce wear, seizure, and galling. Improve material flow in tools, dies, and molds. Act as a thermal barrier between the workpiece and tool and die surfaces, thus preventing workpiece cooling in hot-working processes, Act as a release or parting agent to help in the removal or ejection of parts from dies and molds.
10. Metalworking Fluids

Many types of metalworking fluids are now
available to fulfill these requirements. Because of their diverse chemistries, properties, and characteristics, the behavior and performance of lubricants can be complex. This section describes the general properties of only the most commonly used lubricants.
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10.1 Oils
Oils have high film strength on the surface of a
metal, as you well know if you have ever tried to clean an oily surface. Although they are very effective in reducing friction and wear, oils have low thermal conductivity and specific heat. Thus they are not effective in conducting away the heat generated by friction and plastic deformation in metalworking.
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10.1 Oils
Oils also are difficult and costly to remove from
component surfaces that subsequently are to be painted or welded, and their disposal is difficult. The sources of oils are:
mineral (petroleum), animal, vegetable, and fish.
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10.1 Oils
Oils may be compounded with a variety of
additives or with other oils to impart special properties, such as their viscosity-temperature behavior and surface tension, heat resistance, and boundary layer characteristics. Mineral oils with or without fillers, and used undiluted, are known as neat oils.
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10.1 Oils
Additives. Metalworking fluids are usually blended with

several additives, such as oxidation inhibitors, rust preventatives, odor control agents, antiseptics, and foam inhibitors. Important additives in oils are sulfur, chlorine, and phosphorus. Known as extreme-pressure (EP) additives and used singly or in combination, they react chemically with metal surfaces and form adherent surface films of metallic sulfides and chlorides.
10.1 Oils
Additives. These films have low shear strength and good

anti-weld properties and thus effectively reduce friction and wear. While EP additives are important in boundary lubrication, they may preferentially attack the cobalt binder in tungsten carbide tools and dies, causing changes in their surface roughness and integrity (see Section 3.8).
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10.2 Emulsions
An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible
liquids, usually mixtures of oil and water in various proportions, along with additives. Emulsions, also known as water-soluble oils, are of two types: direct and indirect. In a direct emulsion, mineral oil is dispersed in water as very small droplets. In an indirect emulsion, water droplets are dispersed in the oil.
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10.2 Emulsions
Direct emulsions are important fluids because
the presence of water gives them high cooling capacity. They are particularly effective in high-speed metal machining where temperature rise has detrimental effects on tool life, workpiece surface integrity, and dimensional accuracy.
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10.3 Synthetic solutions

Synthetic solutions are chemical fluids
containing inorganic and other chemicals dissolved in water. Various chemical agents are added to impart different properties. Semi-synthetic solutions are basically synthetic solutions to which small amounts of emulsifiable oils have been added.
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10.4 Soaps, greases, and waxes

Soaps are generally reaction products of
sodium or potassium salts with fatty acids. Alkali soaps are soluble in water, but other metal soaps are generally insoluble. They are effective boundary lubricants and can also form thick film layers at die-workpiece interfaces, particularly when applied on conversion coatings for cold metalworking applications (Section 12).
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Greases (gemuk) Greases are solid or semisolid lubricants and

generally consist of soaps, mineral oil, and various additives. They are highly viscous and adhere well to metal surfaces. Although used extensively in machinery, greases have limited use in manufacturing processes.
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Waxes Waxes may be of animal or plant (paraffin)

origin and have complex structures. Compared to greases, waxes are less "greasy" and are more brittle. They have limited use in metalworking operations, except as lubricants for copper and, as chlorinated paraffin, for stainless steels and high-temperature alloys.
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11. SOLID LUBRICANTS
100
11. Solid Lubricants

Because of their unique properties and
characteristics, several solid materials are used as lubricants in manufacturing operations. Described below are four of the most commonly used solid lubricants.
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11.1 Graphite
The general properties of graphite are
described in Section 8.6. Graphite is weak in shear along its layers and has a low coefficient of friction in that direction. Thus it can be a good solid lubricant, particularly at elevated temperatures. However, the graphite friction is low only in the presence of air or moisture. In a vacuum or an inert gas atmosphere, friction is very high; in fact, graphite can be quite abrasive.
11.1 Graphite
Graphite may be applied either by rubbing it on
surfaces or as a colloidal (dispersion of small particles) suspension in liquid carriers such as water, oil, or alcohols. As described in Section 8.6, a new development in carbon is fullerenes, also called Buckyballs, which are carbon molecules in the shape of soccer balls. When placed between sliding surfaces, these molecules act like very small ball bearings.
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11.1 Graphite
They perform well as solid lubricants, and are
particularly effective for space applications, such as aerospace bearings.
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11.2 Molybdenum disulfide

This is another widely used lamellar solid
lubricant. It is somewhat similar in appearance to graphite. However, unlike graphite it has a high friction coefficient in ambient environment. Oils are commonly used as carriers for molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and are used as a lubricant at room temperature. Molybdenum disulfide can also be rubbed onto the surfaces of a workpiece.
11.3 Metallic and polymeric films

Because of their low strength, thin layers of soft
metals and polymer coatings are also used as solid lubricants. Suitable metals are lead, indium, cadmium, tin, silver, and polymers such as PTFE (Teflon) polyethylene, and methacrylates. However, these coatings have limited applications because of their lack of strength under high contact stresses and at elevated temperatures.
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11.3 Metallic and polymeric films

Soft metals are used to coat high-strength
metals such as steels, stainless steels, and high-temperature alloys. Copper or tin, for example, is chemically deposited on the surface of the metal before it is processed. If the oxide of a particular metal has low friction and is sufficiently thin, the oxide layer can serve as a solid lubricant, particularly at elevated temperatures.
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11.4 Glasses
Although a solid material, glass becomes
viscous at elevated temperatures and hence can serve as a liquid lubricant. Viscosity is a function of temperature, but not of pressure, and depends on the type of glass. Poor thermal conductivity also makes glass attractive, since it acts as a thermal barrier between hot workpieces and relatively cool dies. Typical glass lubrication applications are in hot extrusion and forging.
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12. CONVERSION COATINGS
109
12. Conversion coatings

Lubricants may not always adhere properly to
workpiece surfaces, particularly under high normal and shearing stresses. This condition is a special problem in forging, extrusion, and wire drawing of steels, stainless steels, and high-temperature alloys. For these applications, acids transform the workpiece surface by chemically reacting with it (hence the term conversion), leaving a somewhat rough and spongy surface that acts as a carrier for the lubricant.
12. Conversion coatings

After treatment, borax or lime is used to remove
any excess acid from the surface. A liquid lubricant, such as a soap, is then applied to the coated surface. The lubricant film adheres to the surface and cannot be scraped off easily. Zinc phosphate conversion coatings are often used on carbon and low-alloy steels. Oxalate coatings are used for stainless steels and high-temperature alloys.
13. Lubricant Selection

Selecting a lubricant for a particular process and
workpiece material involves consideration of several factors:
a. The particular manufacturing process. b. Compatibility of the lubricant with the workpiece and tool and die materials. c. Surface preparation required. d. Method of lubricant application. e. Removal of lubricant after processing. f. Contamination of the lubricant by other lubricants, such as those used to lubricate the machinery.
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g. h. i. j. Storage and maintenance of lubricants. Treatment of waste lubricant. Biological and environmental considerations. Costs involved in all aspects listed above.
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In selecting an oil as a lubricant, we should
recognize the importance of its viscositytemperature-pressure characteristics. Low viscosity can have a significant detrimental effect on friction and wear. The different functions of a metalworking fluid, whether primarily a lubricant or a coolant, must also be taken into account. Waterbase fluids are very effective coolants but as lubricants are not as effective as oils.
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Metalworking fluids should not leave any
harmful residues that could interfere with machinery operations. The fluids should not stain or corrode the workpiece or equipment. The fluids should be checked periodically for deterioration caused by bacterial growth, accumulation of oxides, chips, and wear debrisand also general degradation and breakdown because of temperature and time.
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A lubricant may carry with it wear particles and
cause damage to the system, so proper inspection and filtering of metalworking fluids are important. These precautions are necessary for all types of machinery, including internal combustion engines and jet engines.
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After completion of manufacturing operations,
metal surfaces are usually covered with lubricant residues, which should be removed prior to further workpiece processing, such as welding or painting. Various cleaning solutions and techniques can be used for this purpose (Section 33.16).
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13. Lubricant Selection Biological and environmental considerations
As stated in the General Introduction and as is

discussed further in Section 37.4, environmental and biological considerations are important factors in metalworking fluids selection, use, recycling, and ultimate disposal. Potential hazards may be involved in contacting and inhaling some of these fluids, as well as in their improper disposal causing adverse effects on the environment.
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Much progress is being made in developing

environmentally safe fluids and in the technology and equipment for their proper treatment, recycling, and disposal. Recycling of waste fluids and their disposal, as well as the costs involved, are important factors to be considered.
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Laws and regulations concerning the

manufacture, transportation, use, and disposal of metalworking fluids are promulgated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States. (See also Section 37.4.)
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Surface Technology Outline

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Introduction

Surface Technology outline

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Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication

Proses Manufaktur II, Januari 2010

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Depending on the materials and the process

Cold 0.050.1 0.050.1 0.030.1 0.050.1 0.52

Hot 0.20.7 0.10.2 0.10.2

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3. FRICTION IN PLASTICS AND CERAMICS

3. Friction in Plastics and Ceramics

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3. Friction in Plastics and Ceramics

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3. Friction in Plastics and Ceramics

3. Friction in Plastics and Ceramics

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Ring Pengujian Tekan

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Koefisien Gesek dari Tes Ring

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Example: Determination of coefficient of friction

In a ring compression test, a specimen 10 mm

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Example: Determination of coefficient of friction From this, the new ID = 9.7

For a 50 percent reduction

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Pengaruh Keausan pada Profil Permukaan

The major types of wear relevant to manufacturing

6.1 Adhesive wear

6.1 Adhesive wear

6.1 Adhesive wear

6.1 Adhesive wear

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6.1 Adhesive wear

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6.1 Adhesive wear

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6.2 Abrasive wear

6.2 Abrasive wear

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6.2 Abrasive wear

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6.2 Abrasive wear