Transmission Fundamentals

Learning Objectives
Refreshing the fundamentals and basic building blocks of transmission Understanding the basic SDH Multiplexing standard Knowing features, application and advantages of SDH based equipment

Contents
Electromagnetic Signals Communication Methods Physical Layer Transmission Media Efficiency Modulation Techniques PCM E1 frame Structure

Contents
PDH Systems Overview Why SDH Synchronous Network Structure SDH Network Elements Integrating PDH into SDH STM-1 Frame Structure Overheads & Pointers Synchronization Network Resilience Summary

Electromagnetic Signals
Function of time
Analog (varies smoothly over time) Digital (constant level over time, followed by a change to another level)

Function of frequency (more important)

Spectrum (range of frequencies) Bandwidth (width of the spectrum)

Periodic Signal Characteristics

S(t) = A sin(2ft + f)
Amplitude (A): signal value, measured in volts Frequency (f): repetition rate, cycles per second or Hertz Period (T): amount of time it takes for one repetition, T=1/f Phase (f): relative position in time, measured in degrees

Analog Signaling
represented by sine waves
amplitude (volts) 1 cycle

phase difference

time (sec) frequency (hertz) = cycles per second

Phase
Phase

Frequency: 1 Period/Sec = 1 Hertz

Bandwidth
Width of the spectrum of frequencies that can be transmitted
if spectrum=300 to 3400Hz, bandwidth=3100Hz

Greater bandwidth leads to greater costs Limited bandwidth leads to distortion

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

Human hearing ranges from about 20 Hz to about 14,000 Hz (some up to 20,000 Hz). Human voice ranges from 20 Hz to about 14,000 Hz. The bandwidth of a voice grade telephone circuit is 0 to 4000 Hz or 4000 Hz (4 KHz). Guardbands prevent data transmissions from interfering with other transmission when these circuits are multiplexed using FDM.

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

Bandwidth on a Voice Circuit

It is important to note that the limit on bandwidth is imposed by the equipment used in the telephone network. The actual capacity of bandwidth of the wires in the local loop depends on what exact type of wires were installed, and the number of miles in the local loop.

Communication Methods

Physical Layer
-Transmission Media

Classes of Transmission Media

Conducted or guided media
use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber optic cable to move the signal from sender to receiver

Wireless or unguided media

use radio waves of different frequencies and do not need a wire or cable conductor to transmit signals

Design Factors for Transmission Media

Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the band-width, the higher the data rate that can be achieved. Transmission impairments. Limit the distance a signal can travel. Interference: Competing signals in overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out a signal. Number of receivers: Each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion, limiting distance and/or data rate.

Guided Transmission Media

Transmission capacity depends on the distance and on whether the medium is point-to-point or multipoint Examples
twisted pair wires coaxial cables optical fiber

Twisted Pair
STP (shielded twisted pair)
the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid to insulate the pair from electromagnetic interference

UTP (unshielded twisted pair)

each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the pair is encased in an outer covering

Ratings of Twisted Pair

Category 3 UTP
data rates of up to 16mbps are achievable

Category 5 UTP
data rates of up to 100mbps are achievable more tightly twisted than Category 3 cables more expensive, but better performance

STP
More expensive, harder to work with

Twisted Pair Advantages

Inexpensive and readily available Flexible and light weight Easy to work with and install

Twisted Pair Disadvantages

Susceptibility to interference and noise Attenuation problem Relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)

Coaxial Cable (or Coax)

Used for cable television, LANs, telephony Has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the term co-axial

Coax Layers
outer jacket (polyethylene) shield (braided wire)

insulating material

copper or aluminum conductor

Coax Advantages
Higher bandwidth
400 to 600Mhz up to 10,800 voice conversations

Can be tapped easily (pros and cons) Much less susceptible to interference than twisted pair

Coax Disadvantages
High attenuation rate makes it expensive over long distance Bulky

Fiber Optic Cable

Relatively new transmission medium used by telephone companies in place of long-distance trunk lines Also used by private companies in implementing local data communications networks Require a light source with injection laser diode (ILD) or light-emitting diodes (LED)

Fiber Optic Layers

consists of three concentric sections
plastic jacket glass or plastic fiber core cladding

Fiber Optic Types

multimode step-index fiber
the reflective walls of the fiber move the light pulses to the receiver

multimode graded-index fiber

acts to refract the light toward the center of the fiber by variations in the density

single mode fiber

the light is guided down the center of an extremely narrow core

Fiber Optic Signals

fiber optic multimode step-index

fiber optic multimode graded-index

fiber optic single mode

Fiber Optic Advantages

greater capacity (bandwidth of up to 10 Gbps) smaller size and lighter weight lower attenuation immunity to environmental interference highly secure due to tap difficulty and lack of signal radiation

Fiber Optic Disadvantages

expensive over short distance requires skilled installers

Wireless (Unguided Media) Transmission

transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna directional
transmitting antenna puts out focused beam transmitter and receiver must be aligned

Omni directional
signal spreads out in all directions can be received by many antennas

Wireless Examples
terrestrial microwave satellite microwave broadcast radio infrared

Data Transmissions
Analog Transmission of Analog Data
Telephone networks (PSTN)

Digital Transmission of Digital Data

A computer system

Analog Transmission of Digital Data

Uses Modulation/Demodulation (Modem)

Digital Transmission of Analog Data

Uses Coder/Decoder (CODEC)

Methods of Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) or amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency modulation (FM) or frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase modulation or phase shift keying (PSK)

Amplitude Modulation and ASK

Frequency Modulation and FSK

Phase Modulation and PSK

Digital Transmission of Analog Data

Codec = Coder/Decoder Converts analog signals into a digital form and converts it back to analog signals Where do we find codecs?
Sound cards Scanners Voice mail Video capture/conferencing

Digital Encoding of Analog Data

The sampling theorem: If a signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a rate higher than twice the significant signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal. Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
8000 samples/sec sufficient for 4000hz

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Analog voice data must be translated into a series of binary digits before they can be transmitted. With Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the amplitude of the sound wave is sampled at regular intervals and translated into a binary number. The difference between the original analog signal and the translated digital signal is called quantizing error.

Sampling
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

time

Audio Signal

Sampler Output
Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal
T1 T2 T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

time

Non-Linear Quantization and Encoding

Quantization Level

digital codes
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 1/2V 1/4V 1/8V 1/16V 1/32V 1/64 V 0 0 0 0 X X X X 0 0 0 1 X X X X 0 0 1 0 X X X X

112 96 80 64 48 32

-V In accordance with CCITTs A-law

PCM Signal Data Rate

8000 samples per sec 8 bits per sample

64kbit/s

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

2 Mbit/s Frame Structures

2.048 Mbits/frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in
125s
encoded voice / data signals signalling information encoded voice / data signals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 time slots

2 Mbit/s Frame Structures

2.048 Mbits/frame: 32x8 bit=256 bit in
125s
signalling information encoded voice / data signals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 encoded voice / data signals time slots

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Si

FAS (frames 0,2,4...) NFAS (frames 1,3,5...)

Si (M)

Sa Sa Sa 4 5 6

Sa Sa 7 8

Si: Reserved for international use Sa4: Non urgent Alarm (0=Alarm) A: Remote alarm (1=urgent Alarm)

Sa4 to Sa8: Spare bits or used for message based data links (point-to-point applications) FAS: Frame alignment signal (0011011) NFAS: Non frame alignment signal

PDH Systems World-wide

Japan
5. 397200 kbit/s
x4

USA

Europe
564992 kbit/s
x4

4.

97728 kbit/s
x3

274176 kbit/s
x3 x6

139264 kbit/s
x4

3.

32064 kbit/s
x5

44736 kbit/s
x7

34368 kbit/s
x4

6312 kbit/s 2. order

x4
x3

8448 kbit/s
x4

1544 kbit/s primary rate

x 24

2048 kbit/s

x 30/31

64 kbit/s

PDH Multiplex / Demultiplex

2048 kbit/s (+/-50ppm)
1

64 kbit/s Data Signals

8448 kbit/s (+/-30ppm)

1

30

DSMX 64k/2
1

34 368 kbit/s (+/-20ppm)

1

0.3 to 3.1 kHz AF signals

139264 kbit/s (+/-15ppm)

30

PCMX 30 15 kHz Sound Program Signals

1 5
4

DSMX 34/140

PCMX 30

DSMX 8/34 Channel Capacity: 64 x 30 = 1920

64 30

DSMX 2/8

PDH Maintenance Signals

LOS LOF AIS D-Bit

PDH Equipment

AIS

BER 10-3 BER 10-6 D-Bit N-Bit

PDH Equipment

AIS

Disadvantages of PDH
1.Interfaces
Electrical interfaces --Only regional standards. 3 PDH rate hierarchies for PDH: European (2.048 Mb/s), Japanese, North American (1.544 Mb/s). Optical interfaces --No standards for optical line equipment, manufacturers develop at their will.

Disadvantages of PDH
2. Multiplexing methods
140 Mb/s 34 Mb/s 34 Mb/s 140 Mb/s

8 Mb/s
de-multiplexer de-multiplexer de-multiplexer

8 Mb/s multiplexer multiplexer

multiplexer

2 Mb/s

level by level Not suitable for huge-volume transmission

Disadvantages of PDH
3. OAM function
--Weak Operation, Administration & Maintenance function. --Provisioning circuits is time consuming & laborintensive.

4. No universal network management interface

--Capabilities to setup a TMN is limited.
Telecommunications Management Network

The Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Advantages of SDH
1. Interfaces
Electrical interfaces
--Can be connected to all existing PDH signals.

Optical interfaces
--Can be connected to multiple vendors optical transmission equipment.

Advantages of SDH
2. Multiplexing method
Synchronous Transport Module, level 1

--- Basic rate is STM-1, other rates are multiples of the basic rate --- PDH signal to/from SDH signal --- Low level SDH to/from high level SDH
STM-1

622 Mbit/s

622 Mbit/s Multiplexing

STM-1 STM-1 STM-1

De-multiplexing 2 Mbit/s

STM-4

Low rate SDH High rate SDH

Advantages of SDH
Low rate SDH to higher rate SDH

4
STM-1 155 Mb/s

STM-64 10 Gb/s

STM-4 622 Mb/s

STM-16 2.5 Gb/s

WDM

10 Gb/s

Advantages of SDH
byte interleaved multiplexing method

STM-1

One Byte from STM-1 A

A
STM-1 B

4:1

STM-4

STM-1
C STM-1 D

Advantages of SDH
General concept

P D Packing H

STM-1

PKG

Alignment
PKG PKG a b

Advantages of SDH
3. OAM function
--- Abundant overheads bytes for automation, network monitoring and maintenance --- About 5% of the total bytes are being used

Advantages of SDH
4. Compatibility

packing

package

STM-N transmit

SDH network receive

STM-N

package Processing

Processing

unpacking

Disadvantages of SDH
1. Low bandwidth utilization ratio.
Signal E0 E1 E2 E3 E4 Digital Bit Rate 64 kbit/s 2.048 Mbit/s 8.448 Mbit/s 34.368 Mbit/s 139.264 Mbit/s Channels One 64 kbit/s 32 E0 128 E0 16 E1 64 E1

Non-Synchronous, PDH Hierarchy

Bit Rate 155.52 Mbit/s 622.08 Mbit/s 2488.32Mbit/s 9953.28Mbit/s

Abbreviated 155 Mbit/s 622 Mbit/s 2.5 Gbit/s 10 Gbit/s

SDH STM-1 STM-4 STM-16 STM-64

SDH Capacity 63 E1, 3 E3 or 1 E4 252 E1, 12 E3 or 4 E4 1008 E1, 48 E3 or 16 E4 4032 E1, 192 E3, 64 E4
BACK

SDH Hierarchy

Disadvantages of SDH
2. Mechanism of pointer adjustment is complex. 3. Large-scale application of software makes SDH system vulnerable to viruses or malpractice.

Questions
1. Why did SDH emerge? 2. What are the advantages & disadvantages of SDH? 3. What is the basic transmission rate in SDH and what are the other common ones?
Time to think Soon Coffee Time!

SDH Network Elements

STM-1 2Mbit/s

TM ADM
STM-1, STM-4

ATM Switch

ADM
STM-1

STM-4/-16

ADM

140Mbit/s 34Mbit/s 8Mbit/s 2Mbit/s

DXC
LAN

ADM : Add Drop Multiplexer DXC : Digital Cross Connect TM : Terminal Multiplexer DSC: Digital Switching Center LAN: Local Area Network

SDH Network Elements

Terminal Multiplexer
PDH & STM-m Tributaries m<n
STM-n

Applications: Point-to-Point Transmission Systems (STM-1, STM-4, STM-16)

SDH Repeater
STM-n STM-n

Applications: Line Signal Regeneration in Point-to-Point and Ring Networks

Add Drop Multiplexer

WEST
ADM

EAST

STM-1/4

STM-1/4

......

Tributary Ports : n x 2 Mbit/s ( 34 Mbit/s)

Cross Connect
2.4 Gbit/s 622 Mbit/s 155 Mbit/s
155
34 Mbit/s

16x
4x

SDH Multiplexer

2.4 Gbit/s
16x

4x
155 Mbit/s
VC4 VC12

622 Mbit/s 155 Mbit/s

34 2 140

2 VC12 2 2 140 VC12

2 2 34 2 2 140

34 Mbit/s

VC12

140 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s 34 (45)Mbit/s 2 (1.5)Mbit/s

140 Mbit/s

VC4
34

VC 4 VC 3 VC 12

VC4 140 VC3

140 Mbit/s 34 (45)Mbit/s

VC3
VC11 VC12

VC12

2 (1.5)Mbit/s

Common Network Topologies

TM ADM ADM TM

chain
ADM

ADM

ADM

ring

ADM

Layered Model of the SDH Network

......
Packet Network Telephone Network Lower Order Path Layer Higher Order Path Layer Section Layer SDH Transport Layer Cicuit Layer

VC-11

VC-12

VC-2

VC-3

VC-3

VC-4

Multiplex section layer Regenerator section layer Physical media layer

Path Denominations
Lower Order Path Higher Order Path Multiplex Section Regenerator Sections SMX Reg SMX VC-2 VC-12 VC-1 VC-2

VC-12 VC-2

VC-3

VC-4 VC-4 VC-3

VC-4 VC-4 VC-3

VC-3

STM-n RSOH

STM-n RSOH

STM-n MSOH VC-4/3 POH VC-2/3 POH

Network Node Interface (NNI)

SDH
MUX / DEMUX

CC

SDH
Reg.

SDH
MUX / DEMUX

PDH

PDH

NNI

NNI

NNI

The Network Node Interface (NNI) specifications are necessary to enable interconnection of synchronous digital network elements for transport of payloads

ITU-T Rec.:
G.707 G.703 G.957 Synchronous Multiplex Structure Electrical characteristic Optical interface characteristic

The way of integrating PDH signals into STM-1

Plesiochronous signal

140Mbit/s
C4

Container
Path Overhead

Virtual Container
Pointer

VC-4

Administrative Unit
Section Overhead

AU-4

Synchronous Transport Module

STM-1

Functions and Characteristics of the Individual Elements of NNI

The Container (C) Basic packaging unit for tributary signals (PDH) Synchronous to the STM-1 Bitrate adaptation is done via a positive stuffing procedure Adaptation of synchronous tributaries by fixed stuffing bits Bit by bit stuffing The Virtual Container (VC) Formation of the Container by adding of a POH (Path Overhead) Transport as a unit through the network (SDH) A VC containing several VCs has also a pointer area

Functions and Characteristics of the Individual Elements of NNI

The Tributary Unit (TU) Is formed via adding a pointer to the VC The Tributary Unit Group (TUG) Combines several TUs for a new VC The Administrative Unit (AU) Is shaped if a pointer is allocated to the VC formed at last The Syncronous Transport Module Level 1 (STM-1) Formed by adding a Section Overhead (SOH) to AUs Clock justification through positive-zero-negative stuffing in the AU pointer area byte by byte stuffing

SDH Multiplexing Structure

1 STM-64 STM-16 STM-4 1 1

Mapping
AUG-64 4
AUG-16 4 AUG-4 4 AUG-1

Aligning Multiplexing Pointer processing

1
STM-1

1 AU-4
3 1 VC-4 C-4

TUG-3 7

TU-3

VC-3

C-3

TUG-2

TU-12

VC-12

C-12

Glossary
Mapping - A process used when tributaries are adapted into VCs by adding justification bits and POH information

Aligning - This process takes place when a pointer is included in a Tributary Unit (TU) or an Administrative Unit (AU), to allow the 1st byte of the VC to be located

Glossary
Multiplexing - This process is used when multiple low-order path signals are adapted into a higher-order path signal, or when high-order path signals are adapted into a Multiplex Section Stuffing As the tributary signals are multiplexed and aligned, some spare capacity has been designed into the SDH frame to provide enough space for all various tributary rates. Therefore, at certain points in the multiplexing hierarchy, this space capacity is filled with fixed stuffing bits that carry no information, but are required to fill up the particular frame

SDH Frame Structure

SDH Frame Structure

From ITU-T G.707: Frame = 125 us

1.
2.

3.

4. 5.

STM-1 is the basic transmission format One frame lasts for 125 microseconds (8000 frames/s Rectangular block structure 9 rows and 270 columns Each unit is one byte (8 bits) Transmission mode: Byte by byte, row by row, from left to right, from top to bottom

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
270 Columns

9 rows

1 byte = One 64 kbit/s channel STM-N = 9 X 270 X N (N = 4, 16, 64)

SDH Frame Structure

Frame = 125 us

Three parts:
1. Information Payload 2. Section Overhead 3. Pointer

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

SOH PTR SOH

9 270 Columns

Information Payload

9 rows

Information Payload
Information Payload
Also known as Virtual Container level 4 (VC-4) Used to transport low speed tributary signals Contains low rate signals and Path Overhead (POH) Location: rows #1 ~ #9, columns #10 ~ #270

SOH PTR
9 rows

package

POH
1

Payload

loading and aligning

low rate signal

package

SOH
9

POH
270 Columns

SDH Overhead
Concept of Path and Section
one Path ( low rate signal) one Path ( low rate signal)

Section (SDH signal)

one Path ( low rate signal)

Two main types of overheads: 1. Section Overhead 2. Path Overhead

Section Overheads
Fulfills the section layer OAM functions
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9

RSOH PTR MSOH

9
270 Columns

Types of Section Overhead

Information Payload

1.
9 rows

2.

1.
2.

Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH), monitors the whole STM-N Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH), monitors STM-1 in STM-N Location: RSOH: rows #1 ~ #3, columns #1 ~ #9 MSOH: rows #5 ~ #9, columns #1 ~ #9

Section Overheads
R S O H A1
1
2 3

A1

A1

A2 E1 D2

A2 AU-PTR

A2

J0 F1 D3

B1 D1

S T M 1

B2 D4 D7 D10 S1

B2

B2

K1 D5 D8 D11 M1

K2 D6 D9 D12 E2

M S O H

6 7 8 9

= Media dependent bytes

A1 and A2 Bytes
Framing Bytes Indicate the beginning of the STM-N frame The A1, A2 bytes are unscrambled A1 = f6H (11110110), A2 = 28H (00101000) In STM-N: (3XN) A1 bytes, (3XN) A2 bytes

stream
STM-N STM-N STM-N STM-N STM-N STM-N

Finding frame head

D1 ~ D12 Bytes
Data Communications Channels (DCC) Bytes Message-based Channel for OAM between NEs and NMS RS-DCC D1 ~ D3 192 kbit/s (3X64 kbit/s) MS-DCC D4 ~ D12 576 kbit/s (9X64kbit/s)

NE

NE DCC channel

NE

NE

TMN

OAM Information: Control, Maintenance, Remote Provisioning, Monitoring (Alarm & Performance), Administration

E1 and E2 Bytes
Orderwire Bytes Provides one 64 kbit/s each for voice communication E1 RS Orderwire Byte RSOH orderwire message E2 MS Orderwire Byte MSOH orderwire message

NE

NE E1 and E2

NE

NE

Digital telephone channel E1-RS, E2-MS

B1, B2 Byte
Bit interleaved Parity Code (BIP-8) Byte
A parity code (even parity), used to check the transmission errors over the RS B1 BBE is represented by RS-BBE

Bit interleaved Parity Code (MS BIP-24) Byte This bit interleave parity NX24 code is used to
determine transmission errors occurred over the MS B2 BBE is represented by MS-BBE

M1 Byte
Multiplex Section Remote Error IndicationMS-REIByte A return message from Rx to Tx ,when Rx find MS-BBE
A count of the number of BIP-24xN (B2) errors Tx generate corresponding performance event MS-REI

Traffic

Tx
Return M1 Generate MS-REI

Rx

Find MS-BBE

K1 and K2 byte
Automatic Protection Switching (APS channel) bytes

Transmitting APS signaling Implement equipment self-healing function Used for network multiplex protection switch function

S1 Byte
Synchronization Status Message Byte (SSMB): S1 (b5~ b8) Value indicates the sync. level Used to implement the clock source protection function
bits 5 ~ 8 0000 0010 0100 1000 1011 1111 Meaning Quality unknown (existing sync. Network) G.811 PRC SSU-A (G.812 transit) SSU-B (G.812 local) G.813 (Sync. Equipment Timing Clock) Do not use for sync.

Path Overheads
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
J1 B3 C2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

VC-n Path Trace Byte

Path BIP-8 Path Signal Label

G1 F2 H4
F3 K3 N1

Path Status
Path User Channel TU Multiframe Indi

Path User Channel

AP Switching Network Operator

Higher Order Path Overhead

Path Overheads
Low Order Path Overhead 1 1 V5 4 J2 N2 K4

VC-12

VC-12

VC-12

VC-12

500s VC-12 Multiframe

Path Overhead Bytes

V5
> First byte of the multiframe > Indicated by TU-PTR > Functions: Error checking, Signal Label and Path Status of VC-12 b1 ~ b2 b3 b4 b5 ~ b7 b8 Error Performance Monitoring (BIP-2) Return Error detected in VC-12 (LP-REI) Return Failure declared in VC-12 (LP-RFI) Signal Label for VC-12 Indicate Defect in VC-12 path (LP-RDI)

Pointers

Pointers

AU-PTR

TU-PTR

AU-PTR
RSOH

AU-PTR

MSOH

AU-PTR
> Payload pointers to permit differences in phase and frequency of the VC-N wrt the STM-N > Indicates the offset between VC payload & STM-N frame by pointing to the 1st byte in the VC > Consists of H1, H2 and H3 Bytes > Divide the VC-4 payload bytes into 3 783 units > Each unit is given an address 0 ~ 782

H1 3 x AU-3 1 x AU-4 H1

H1

H1

H2

H2

H2

H3

H3

H3 1 = All 1s Y = 1001ss11 (S bits unspecified)

H2

H3

H3

H3

Use of the AU-4 Pointer Area, Coding

H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 NDF, mapping struc, pointer inc/dec Pointer inc/dec IDIDIDID J1 C4 payload Pointer interpretation : H1 byte N New data flag (NDF) disabled New data flag enabled AU/TU type AU-4/TU-3 AU/TU type AU-3/TU-3 AU-4 pointer 0...782 TU-3 pointer 0...764 Null pointer indication (NPI) : : : : : : : 0 1 N N 1 0 1 0 N 0 1 1 0 0 1 X X X X 1 1 X X X X 1 1 X X 1 X X 0 X X 0 X X 0 X X 0 X X 0 S S I D H2 byte I D I D I D I D Opportunity for negative stuffing (more capacity) Opportunity for positive stuffing (less capacity)

S S

AU-PTR Action
Frequency justification of several STM-1 signals running into a network node (Pointer Stuffing)
1 RSOH 9 270

Actual pointer

H1

H2
MSOH

H3

Start of VC-4

125s Pointer with inverted D bits

RSOH H1 H2 MSOH H3

250s
RSOH H1 H2 MSOH

negative justification byte (data)

New pointer
H1

375s
RSOH H2 MSOH H3

500s

TU-PTR
1

VC-12

VC-12

VC-12

VC-12

V1

V2 500s VC-12 multiframe TU POINTERS

V3

V4

TU-PTR
> TU payload PTR allows dynamic alignment of the LO VC-12 within the Multiframe > Payload PTR value is located in bits 7~ 16 of V1 & V2 Bytes > VC-12 Multiframe is divided into 140 units, each unit is 1 Byte. Each Byte has an address, Range 0~ 139, Unit 1 (Add = 0) is located after V2 Byte in the Multiframe > If receiver side cannot interpret the PTR value, TULOP then AIS alarms are inserted downwards > Receiving V1, V2, V3, V4 all 1s, insert TU-AIS downwards > Indication of Multiframe in H4 Byte

Questions
Which bytes in the Overhead are not scrambled for transmission? Which byte is used to monitor the MS-AIS and MSRDI? Which bytes implement the layered error monitoring?

Synchronization Architecture in SDH

Synchronization Network
Primary Reference Clock
long term: holdover 24h:

PRC

Caesium (Stratum 1)

requ : 1 x 10-11 typ : 5 x 10-12 Rubidium (Stratum 2) requ : 1.6 x 10-8 , 1 x 10-10 typ : 4 x 10-11 , 2 x 10-11

SSU

SSU

Synchronization Supply Unit

SEC
SDH Equip.

SEC
SDH Equip.

SEC
SDH Equip.

SDH Equipment Clock

Synchronization reference model

G.811 PRC G.812 TNC SSU G.812 TNC SSU

G.813 SEC

G.813 SEC

G.813 SEC

Limits: Max. Max. 10 x G.812 TNC 60 x G.813 SEC, though no more than 20 between 2 TNCs

Synchronization of SDH Network Elements

SDH Network Element
Internal Oscillator 4.6 ppm 2 Mbit/s Data Signal

155 Mbit/s Data Signal

Osc.

Synchronous SDH Signal

2 048 kHz Central Clock

Which Recommendations define Synchronization Networks

ITU-T Definitions Network Primary Reference Clocks Synchron. Supply Clocks (ST2) Equipment Clocks (ST3) G.810 G.825 G.811 G.812 G.813 (G.81s)

ANSI / Bellcore T1.101 / GR-253 T1.105 / GR-253 T1.101 T1.101 GR-253

ETSI ETS 300 462-1 ETS 300 462-3 ETS 300 462-6 ETS 300 462-4 ETS 300 462-5

Network resilience

Linear Protection (G.783)

W P
W P
1 : 1 Protection scheme 1 + 1 Protection scheme

W W P
1 : N Protection scheme

Linear Protection (G.783)

W P
W P
1 : 1 Protection scheme 1 + 1 Protection scheme

W W P
1 : N Protection scheme

Unidirectional and Bidirectional Rings

Traffic A -> B Traffic A -> B ADM A ADM B ADM ADM

B -> A A ADM B ADM

Traffic B -> A

ADM

ADM

longer path

Unidirectional Ring
Fiber 1 : unidirectional

Fiber 2 : unidirectional

Tributary

Tributary

Unidirectional Ring
Fiber 1 : unidirectional

Fiber 2 : unidirectional

Tributary

Tributary

Unidirectional Ring
Fiber 1 : unidirectional

Fiber 2 : unidirectional

Tributary

Tributary

T Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring (BLSR)

Fiber 1

Fiber 2

Tributary

Tributary

T Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring (BLSR)

Fiber 1

Fiber 2

Tributary

working protection

Tributary

T Bidirectional Line-Switched Ring (BLSR)

Fiber 1

Fiber 2

Tributary

working protection

Tributary

Lets summarize !
Please name the PDH bitrates ! Please explain stuffing ! When will stuffing be applied ? What is the reaction of a Network element after an LOS alarm ? What is the meaning of an LOF alarm ? Is it possible to drop an 2Mbit/s signal out of an 140Mbit/s line ? Why not ? Please name the SDH bitrates ! Explain the way an PDH signal is integrated in an STM-1 !

Lets summarize !
Please name the SDH network elements !

What are they used for ?

Please name the different sections of an SDH connection ! What is a parity byte ? Which parity bytes do you know ? Which overhead bytes are used for data communication ? What is a pointer ? What is a pointer used for ?

Lets summarize !
Please name the SDH network elements ! What are they used for ? Please explain how a synchronization network looks like ! Explain the possibilities to synchronize a NE ! What is a holdover mode ? Please explain the methods of linear protection ! What kind of ring structures do you know ?

Thanks !