Presentation on

Methods and Techniques of Data Collection in Research

Subject : Communication and Research Skill Subject Code : 710001N

Presented by :Ravichandra Kiritbhai Valand

ME 1st Semester ( Energy Engineering ) Enrollment No:- 130190739011 Government Engineering College , Valsad.

Guided By :Prof. Bhavesh Rana

Contents

1. 2. 3. 4.

Abstract Introduction Data collection Methods & Techniques Primary methods : (a) Interview (b) Observation (c) Questionnaire 5. Secondary methods: Case Study 6. Conclusion 7. Bibliography

(2). Introduction
In dealing with any real life (research) problem, it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time, and other resources at the discretion of the researcher.
Research differs in many aspects, but they do have few similar aspects. Many components are involved in conducting research. One very essential factor is collection of data. Data collection can be gathered from a number of sources, which includes working environment, web technologies, focus groups, field notes, questionnaires and recorded social interactions or interviews. This article focuses on various methods and techniques of Data collection.

(3). Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. Data Collection Method
Primary Data Secondary Data

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Interview

Observation

Questionnaire

The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. Secondary data on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.

(4). Primary Methods:

(a) Interview :
Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined interview as a two-person conversation, initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on the content specified by the research objectives of description and explanation. Functions of interview Two major functions of the interview techniques are i. Description ii. Exploration

Description The information received from the respondent provides insight into the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the respondents, he can understand their feelings & attitudes more clearly, and seek additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for him.
Exploration Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem.

Types of Interviews There are many types of interviews, each of which differs from the others in structure, purpose, role of the interviewer, number of respondents involved in each interview, and form and frequency of administration. Structured Interview A structured interview is sometimes called as standardized interview. Same questions are asked for all respondents. Corbetta (2003) states structured interviews are interviews in which all respondents are asked the same questions with the same wording and in the same questions with the same wording and in the same sequence. The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of questioning. The strengths of structured interviews are that the researcher has control over the topics and the format of the interview.

On the contrary, drawbacks of structured interviews are they adhere too closely to the interview guide and may be the cause of not probing for relevant information.

Semi-structured Interviews In this Semi-structured interviewer the researcher has a list of key themes, issues, and questions to be covered. Here the order of the questions can be changed depending on the direction of the interview.

Corbetta (2003) explains semi-structured interviews as follows:

The order in which the various topics are dealt with and the wording of the questions are left to the interviewers discretion. Within each topic, the interviewer is free to conduct the conversation as he thinks fit, Additional questions can be asked and some may be questions that have not been anticipated in the beginning of the interview. The strengths of semi-structured interviews are that the researcher can prompt and probe deeper into the given situation. For example, the interviewer inquires about using computers in library. Some respondents are more computer literate than others are. The drawbacks are inexperienced interviewers may not be able to ask prompt questions. If this is the case, some relevant data may not be gathered.

Unstructured Interviews This type of interview is non-directed and is a flexible method. It is more casual than the aforementioned interviews. There is no need to follow a detailed interview guide. Interviewees are encouraged to speak openly, frankly and give as much detail as possible. The strengths of unstructured interviews are no restrictions are placed on questions. It is useful when little or no knowledge exists about a topic. So, background data can be collected. Unstructured interviews are flexible. The drawbacks of unstructured interviews are that they can be inappropriate for inexperienced interviewers. The interviewers may be bias and ask inappropriate questions.

Non-directive Interviews Questions are usually not pre-planned. The interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The interviewer follows what the interviewee has to say. The interviewee leads the conversation. The interviewer has the objectives of the research in mind and what issues to cover during the interview. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely about the subject. The interviewers role is to check on unclear points and to rephrase the answer to check for accuracy and understanding (Gray, 2004). The strengths of non-directive interviews are to find the deep-seated problem and the subconscious feelings. On the other hand, the drawbacks are that there are no directions or issues to explore which can cause some problems in coding and analyzing the data.

Analytical interviews These types of interviews are based on theoretical foundation and serve to analyze concepts, theories, social relationships and events. Biographical interviews A biographical interview is an interview form employed to study the life history of a respondent. It is often carried out in conjunction with document analysis, Focused interviews This was developed by R K Merton in the 1940s in the context of propaganda research, and analysis of mass communication. it focuses on a specific topic, which respondents are asked to discuss, thereby providing their views and opinions on the research question. Soft interview Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them.

Hard interview The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to give an answer when they hesitate. In-depth Interview An in-depth interview is a dialogue between a skilled interviewer and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995). It is much less formal than the semi-structured interview. While you have structured some basic questions on paper, the discussion on the issue is largely free- ranging. When you intend to collect complex information, containing a high proportion of opinions, attitudes and personal experiences of the respondents, you go in for in-depth interview. For an in-depth interview, the sample is kept small. Only a few purposively selected people are subjected to a detailed interview.

Focus Groups Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. Use of the group interaction to generate data. The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents behaviors, attitudes, language, etc. Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the problem. Focus groups conducted by experts take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual). Telephone interviews Telephone interviewing demonstrates the same structural characteristics as standard interviewing techniques, except that it is conducted by telephone. These are employed when the interviews are simple and brief, when quick and inexpensive results are sought, when it is not required to approach the respondent face to face and when sampling inaccuracies (e.g. non subscribers and unlisted numbers) are not considered important.

Interviewing in the computer age The development of computers has affected many aspects of life of every Individual and consequently the researcher, the interviewer and the interviewee. The following are some examples of computer packages that are relevant to interviewing. Computer-aided personal interview (CAPI) This program allows interviews to be carried out through the assistance of computers, whereby to a certain extent the computer takes the place of the interviewer. Questioning and control of the responses is done through the computer.

Computer-driven self completion interview (CODSCI)

The interview is carried out in a computer session in which the respondent reads the questions from the computer screen in direct communication with the computer. After completion of the interview, the responses are saved automatically in the memory and further added to previous interview data.

Computer-aided telephone interview (CATI) Here the computer is used by the interviewer, who reads the questions to the interviewee through the telephone as it appears on the screen and records the response in the computer. It can draw the sample, choose the telephone number, dial the respondent through a self-dial system and connect the interviewer with the interviewee. Advantages of interviewing Flexibility & High response rate behavior

Easy administration

&

Opportunity to observe non-verbal

Control over the environment and order of the questions Capacity for correcting misunderstandings by respondents: Such an option is very valuable and not available in other forms of data collection.

Opportunity to record spontaneous answers Control over the time, date, & place of the interview

More complex questions can be used, because the presence of the interviewer can assist in answering the questions.
Limitations Despite the above advantages, interviewing is limited by some factors that cannot be overlooked Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods. Interviews are affected by the factor, interviewer & the possible bias associated with. Interviewing is more inconvenient. It is less effective than other methods, when sensitive issues are discussed.

(b) Observation
Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening. It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their 'natural' settings and that the presence of the research may lead to problems with validity.

Techniques for collecting data through observation:

(1) Written descriptions I. The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or environment II. Limitations include Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notes The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation There is room for subjective interpretation of what is happening

2) Video recording I. Allows the researcher to also record notes II. Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera or others avoiding the camera III. The camera may not always see everything (3) Photographs and arte facts I. Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or phenomena such as buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance II. Artefacts include objects of significance - memorabilia, instruments, tools etc. Limitations with observation include: I. II. III. IV. Change in people's behaviour when they know they are being observed A 'snap shot' view of a whole situation Think Big Brother... The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes V. The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what has been observed

Strengths of observation : I. II. III. IV. Can offer a flavour for what is happening Can give an insight into the bigger picture Can demonstrate sub-groups Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research

Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a participant observer, where they are taking part in the situation in order to be accepted and further understand the workings of the social phenomenon.
Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how people actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way). Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of nullifying information provided in face to face encounters. People or environment can be observed. When environment is researched, it can provide valuable background information that may inform other aspects of the research.

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys.

Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart

of a survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey is bound to fail.
(a) General form (b) Question sequence (c) Question formulation and wording

(a) General form: The general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire . Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type yes or no) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning.

Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives. Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondents own words are held to the minimum. When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire.

(b) Question sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the questionsequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning there by that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest. The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:

I.

questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent; II. questions of a personal character; III. questions related to personal wealth, etc.
(C) Question formulation and wording : With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. In general, all questions should meet the following standards: (a) should be easily understood; (b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time; (c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondents way of thinking.

Strengths of Questionnaire : I. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no response is often indeterminate. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

II. III. IV. V.

Limitations with Questionnaire include: I. II. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents own words. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.

III. IV.
V.

Essentials of a good questionnaire :

I.

To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

II. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions. III. The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible. IV. The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting cooperation. V. The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may attract the attention of recipients.

Essentials of a good questionnaire :

I.

To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

II. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions. III. The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible. IV. The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting cooperation. V. The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may attract the attention of recipients.

(5) Secondary Method :

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected and analysed by someone

else.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are available in: I. various publications of the central, state are local governments; II. various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations; III. technical and trade journals; IV. books, magazines and newspapers; V. reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; VI. reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and VII. public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.

Case Study :
Case study research, through reports of past studies, allows the exploration and understanding of complex issues. It can be considered a robust research method particularly when a holistic, in-depth investigation is required. Case studies, in their true essence, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships. An in-depth longitudinal examination of a single case or event is used. The longitudinal examination provides a systematic way of observing the events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results over a long period of time.

Category of case study :

There are several categories of case study. Yin (1984) notes three categories, namely:
I. Exploratory case study, II. Descriptive case study, III. explanatory case studies. First, exploratory case studies set to explore any phenomenon in the data which serves as a point of interest to the researcher.

Second, descriptive case studies set to describe the natural phenomena which occur within the data in question, for instance, what different strategies are used by a reader and how the reader use them.
Third, explanatory case studies examine the data closely both at a surface and deep level in order to explain the phenomena in the data. Other researchers also mention about other categories of case study.

In defining case studies, Stake (1995) distinguishes three types, I. the intrinsic, II. the instrumental, III. the collective. In an intrinsic case study, a researcher examines the case for its own sake. In an instrumental case study, the researcher selects a small group of subjects in order to examine a certain pattern of behaviour. In a collective case study, the researcher coordinates data from several different sources, such as schools or individuals.

Design of case study : Careful design of a case study is therefore very important. This is because case study method, through interviews or journal entries, must be able to prove that: i. it is the only viable method to elicit implicit and explicit data from the subjects.

ii. it is appropriate to the research question. iii. it follows the set of procedures with proper application. iv. the scientific conventions used in social sciences are strictly followed. v. a chain of evidence, either quantitatively or qualitatively , are systematically recorded and archived particularly when interviews and direct observation by the researcher are the main sources of data. vi. the case study is linked to a theoretical framework (Tellis, 1997) .

Limitations :

I.

It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed under case study method since one studies the natural history cycles of social units and that too minutely.

II. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic at times, and as such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt. III. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in case of a big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method. IV. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method. He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer about it. In case the same is not true, then consequences follow. In fact, this is more the fault of the researcher rather than that of the case method.

Advantages : I. Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand fully the behaviour pattern of the concerned unit.

II. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment. III. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case study method depending upon the prevalent circumstances. In other words, the use of different methods such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports of individuals, letters, and the like is possible under case study method. IV. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his analysing ability and skill.

Conclusion
Despite the above stated limitations, we find that case studies are being undertaken in several disciplines, particularly in sociology, as a tool of scientific research in view of the several advantages indicated earlier. Most of the limitations can be removed if researchers are always conscious of these and are well trained in the modern methods of collecting case data and in the scientific techniques of assembling, classifying and processing the same. Besides, case studies, in modern times, can be conducted in such a manner that the data are amenable to quantification and statistical treatment. Possibly, this is also the reason why case studies are becoming popular day by day.

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