Semana 05: Conceptos de Radiofrecuencia

Wireless Radio Technology

1. Overview of waves 2.Bandwidth

3. Electromagnetic Spectrum 4. Size of a wave 5. Basics of EM waves 6. Wireles Propagation a. Attenuation b. free-Space Waves c. reflected waves d. diffraction e. refraction d. multipath reflection

1. Overview of Waves

Wave is a disturbance or variation that travels through a medium. The medium through which the wave travels may experience some
local oscillations as the wave passes, but the particles in the medium do not travel with the wave. Just like none of the individual people in the stadium are carried around when they do the wave, they all remain at their seats.
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Waves
www.ewart.org.uk

Waves are one way in which energy can move from one place to another. The waves that you see at the beach are the result of the kinetic energy of water particles passing through the water. Other types of energy (such as light, heat, and radio waves) can travel in this way as well.

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Waves
www.ewart.org.uk

The distance between 2 peaks (or 2 troughs (canal/valle)) is called a wavelength The deepest part of a trough or the highest part of a peak is called the amplitude The frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass by in 1 second
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a. Ondas Longitudinales
www.ewart.org.uk

Longitudinal sound waves in the air behave in much the same way. As the sound wave passes through, the particles in the air oscillate back and forth from their equilibrium positions but it is the disturbance that travels, not the individual particles in the medium. Rick talks in a loud voice. When he talks he causes the air near his mouth to compress. A compression wave then passes through the air to the ears of the people around him. A longitudinal sound wave has to travel through something - it cannot pass through a vacuum because there aren't any particles to compress together. It has a wavelength; a frequency and an amplitude.
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b. Transverse Waves

interactive activity 3.1.1

Transverse waves on a string are another example. The string is displaced up and down, as the wave travels from left to right, but the string itself does not experience any net motion. A light wave is a transverse wave. If you look at the waves on the sea they seem to move in one direction .... towards you. However, the particles that make up the wave only move up and down. Look at the animation, on the right, although the wave seems to be moving from left to right the blue particle is only moving up and down.
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c. Sine waves

The sine wave is unique in that it represents energy entirely

concentrated at a single frequency. An ideal wireless signal has a sine waveform With a frequency usually measured in cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). A million cycles per second is represented by megahertz (MHz). A billion cycles per second represented by gigahertz (GHz).
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Sine waves

Amplitude : The distance from zero to the maximum value of each

alternation is called the amplitude. The amplitude of the positive alternation and the amplitude of the negative alternation are the same. Period :The time it takes for a sine wave to complete one cycle is defined as the period of the waveform. The distance traveled by the sine wave during this period is referred to as its wavelength. Wavelength : Indicated by the Greek lambda symbol . It is the distance between one value to the same value on the next cycle. Frequency :The number of repetitions or cycles per unit time is the frequency, typically expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
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Relationship between time and frequency

The inverse relationship between time (t), the period in seconds, and frequency (f), in Hz, is indicated by the following formulas: t = 1/f (time = 1 / frequency) f = 1/t (frequency = 1 / time) Examples: 1 second t = 1/f 1 second = 1 / 1 Hz (1 cycle per second) f = 1/t 1 Hz = 1 / 1 second second t = 1/f second = 1 / 2 Hz (2 cycles per second) f = 1/t 2 Hz = 1 / second 1/10,000,000th of a second t = 1/f 1/10,000,000th of a second = 1 / 10,000,000 Hz (cycles/sec) = 1 / 10 MHz f = 1/t 10 MHz = 1 / 1/10,000,000th of sec
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Sine waves

180 Phase Shift

One full period or cycle of a sine wave is said to cover 360 degrees

(360). It is possible for one sine wave to lead or lag another sine wave by any number of degrees, except zero or 360. When two sine waves differ by exactly zero or 360, the two waves are said to be in phase. Two sine waves that differ in phase by any other value are out of phase, with respect to each other.
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Analog to digital conversion

1. Analog wave amplitudes are sampled at specific instances in time. 2. Each sample is assigned a discrete value. 3. Each discrete value is converted to a stream of bits.
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2. Bandwidth

There are two common ways of looking at bandwidth:

1. Analog bandwidth 2. Digital bandwidth 1. Analog bandwidth Analog bandwidth can refer to the range of frequencies . Analog bandwidth is described in units of frequency, or cycles per second, which is measured in Hz. There is a direct correlation between the analog bandwidth of any medium and the data rate in bits per second that the medium can support.
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Bandwidth

2. Digital bandwidth Digital bandwidth is a measure of how much information can flow from one place to another, in a given amount of time. Digital bandwidth is measured in bits per second. When dealing with data communications, the term bandwidth most often signifies digital bandwidth.
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3. EM (Electromagnetic) Spectrum

Basics of EM waves

EM (Electromagnetic) spectrum a set of all types of radiation when

discussed as a group. Radiation is energy that travels in waves and spreads out over distance. The visible light that comes from a lamp in a house and radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic waves. Other examples are microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.
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Basics of EM waves

All EM waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum and have a

characteristic wavelength () and frequency (f), which can be determined by using the following equation: c = x f, where c = the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s) Wavelength x Frequency = Speed of light Speed of light = 180,000 miles/sec or 300,000 kilometers/sec or 300,000,000 meters/sec

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Basics of EM waves

300,000 kilometers or 180,000 miles

150,000 km 150,000 km

wavelength (), frequency (f), speed of light (c) A wave of 1 cycle per second, has a wavelength of 300,000,000
meters or 300,000 kilometers or 180,000 miles. Speed of a bit doesnt go beyond the speed of light, Dr. Einstein says we all go poof (my words, not his) Speed is a function of increasing the number of waves, bits, in the Rick same Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu amount of space, I.e. bits per second

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4. Size of a Wave

Size of a Wave

Its important to visualize the physical size of a wireless signal because the physical size determines: 1. How that signal interacts with its environment 2. How well it is propagated from antenna to antenna 3. The physical size of the antenna (the smaller the signal size, the smaller the antenna)
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Speed of Light
Speed of light = 186,000 miles/sec or 300,000,000 meters/sec (approx.) Start here End here 1 second

186,000 miles Mile: 0 Mile: 186,000

1 mile 5,280 feet per mile; so 186,000 miles = 982,080,000 feet 63,360 inches per mile; so 186,000 miles = 11,784,960,000 inches

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Wavelength

All About Wavelength

http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/EDDOCS/wavelength.html

Speed of the wave = Frequency x Wavelength Wavelength = Speed of the wave or speed of light / Frequency Speed of light =
186,000 miles/sec or 982,080,000 feet/sec or 11,784,960,000 inches/sec

Wavelength = Speed of the wave or speed of light/ Frequency 10.93 feet = 982,080,000 feet per sec / 90,000,000 cycles per sec
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Speed of Light
Speed of light = 186,000 miles/sec
Mile: 0, beginning of rope Mile: 186,000, end of rope

Length of rope 186,000 miles long

0 seconds After 1/2 second After 1 second

0 second

1 second

1 second

Length of rope (cuerda/cordel) 186,000 miles long traveling at the

speed of light, 186,000 miles/second In 1 second we would see the entire length of rope go by.
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5. Basics of EM Waves

Basics of EM waves

EM waves exhibit the following properties:

1. Reflection or bouncing 2. Refraction or bending 3. Diffraction or spreading around obstacles 4. Scattering or being redirected by particles This will be discussed in greater detail later in this module. Also, the frequency and the wavelength of an EM wave are inversely proportionally to one another.
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Basics of EM waves
There are a number of
properties that apply to all EM waves, including: 1. Direction 2. Frequency 3. Wavelength 4. Power 5. Polarization 6. Phase.

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EM Spectrum Chart

One of the most important diagrams in both science and engineering is the chart of the EM spectrum . The typical EM spectrum diagram summarizes the ranges of frequencies, or bands that are important to understanding many things in nature and technology. EM waves can be classified according to their frequency in Hz or their wavelength in meters. The most important range for this course is the RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum.
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EM Spectrum Chart

The RF spectrum includes several frequency bands including: 1. Microwave 2. Ultra High Frequencies (UHF) 3. Very High Frequencies (VHF) This is also where WLANs operate. The RF spectrum ranges from 9 kHz to 300 GHz. Consists of two major sections of the EM spectrum: (RF Spectrum) Radio Waves Microwaves. The RF frequencies, which cover a significant portion of the EM radiation spectrum, are used heavily for communications. Most of the RF ranges are licensed, though a few key ranges are unlicensed.
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EM Spectrum Chart
Nasa.gov

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Nasa.gov

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Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu

www.britishlibrary.net

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Licensed Frequencies
Frequency bands have a limited number of useable different
frequencies, or communications channels. Many parts of the EM spectrum are not useable for communications and many parts of the spectrum are already used extensively for this purpose. The electromagnetic spectrum is a finite resource. One way to allocate this limited, shared resource is to have international and national institutions that set standards and laws as to how the spectrum can be used. In the US, it is the FCC that regulates spectrum use. In Europe, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) regulates the spectrum usage. Frequency bands that require a license to operate within are called the licensed spectrum. Examples include amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) radio, ham or short wave radio, cell phones, broadcast television, aviation bands, and many others. In order to operate a device in a licensed band, the user must first for and be granted the appropriate license. Rick apply Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 32

ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) & U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure)

Some areas of the spectrum have been left unlicensed. This is favorable for certain applications, such as WLANs. An important area of the unlicensed spectrum is known as the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands and the U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) ISM 802.11b, 802.11g U-NII 802.11a These bands are unlicensed in most countries of the world. The following are some examples of the regulated items that are related to WLANs: The FCC has defined eleven 802.11b DSSS channels and their corresponding center frequencies. ETSI has defined 13. The FCC requires that all antennas that are sold by a spread spectrum vendor be certified with the radio with which it is sold. Unlicensed bands are generally license-free, provided that devices are low power. After all, you dont need to license your microwave oven or portable phone.

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6. Wireless Propagation

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Wireless Propagation
Wireless propagation is the total of everything that happens to a
wireless signal as the signal travels from Point A to Point B. The study of how EM waves travel and interact with matter can become extremely complex.

There are several important simplifications which can be made. In a vacuum, 2.4 GHz microwaves travel at the speed of light. Once started, these microwaves will continue in the direction they were emitted forever, unless they interact with some form of matter. In the atmosphere, the microwaves are traveling in air, not in a vacuum. This does not significantly change their speed. Similar to light, when RF travels through transparent matter, some of the waves are altered. 2.4 & 5 GHz microwaves also change, as they travel through matter. Amount of alteration depends heavily on the frequency of the waves and the Rick Graziani graziani@cabrillo.edu 35 matter.

Wireless Propagation

Mental picture Wave is not a spot or a line, but a moving wave. Like dropping a rock into a pond. Wireless waves spread out from the antenna. Wireless waves pass through air, space, people, objects,

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a. Attenuation
Same wavelength (frequency), less amplitude.

Attenuation is the loss in amplitude that occurs whenever a signal

travels through wire, free space, or an obstruction. At times, after colliding with an object the signal strength remaining is too small to make a reliable wireless link.

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Attenuation and Obstructions

Shorter the wavelength (higher frequency) of the wireless signal, the
more the signal it is attenuated.

Same wavelength (frequency), less amplitude.

Longer the wavelength (lower frequency) of the wireless signal, the

less the signal is attenuated.
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Attenuation and Obstructions

The wavelength for the AM (810 kHz) channel is 1,214 feet The larger the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the less the signal is attenuated. The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated.
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b. Free-Space Waves

Free-space wave is a signal that propagates from Point A to Point B without encountering or coming near an obstruction. The only amplitude reduction is due to free space loss (coming). This is the ideal wireless scenario.
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c. Reflected Waves
1. 2.
When a wireless signal encounters an obstruction, normally two things happen: Attenuation The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated. Reflection The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the obstruction, the more likely it is that some of the signal will be reflected off the obstruction.

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Microwave Reflections

Microwave signals:
Frequencies between 1 GHz 30 GHz (this can vary among experts). Wavelength between 12 inches down to less than 1 inch. Microwave signals reflect off objects that are larger than their wavelength, such as buildings, cars, flat stretches of ground, and bodes of water. Each time the signal is reflected, the amplitude is reduced.
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Reflection

Reflection is the light bouncing back in the general direction from which
it came. Consider a smooth metallic surface as an interface. As waves hit this surface, much of their energy will be bounced or reflected. Think of common experiences, such as looking at a mirror or watching sunlight reflect off a metallic surface or water. When waves travel from one medium to another, a certain percentage of the light is reflected. This is called a Fresnel reflection (Fresnel coming later).
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Reflection

Radio waves can bounce off of different layers of the atmosphere. The reflecting properties of the area where the WLAN is to be installed
are extremely important and can determine whether a WLAN works or fails. Furthermore, the connectors at both ends of the transmission line going to the antenna should be properly designed and installed, so that no reflection of radio waves takes place.
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Reflections

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Microwave Reflections
Multipath Reflection

Advantage: Can use reflection to go around obstruction. Disadvantage: Multipath reflection occurs when reflections cause
more than one copy of the same transmission to arrive at the receiver at slightly different times.

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d. Diffraction

Diffracted Signal

Diffraction of a wireless signal occurs when the signal is partially

blocked or obstructed by a large object in the signals path. A diffracted signal is usually attenuated so much it is too weak to provide a reliable microwave connection. Do not plan to use a diffracted signal, and always try to obtain an unobstructed path between microwave antennas.
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Weather - Precipitation

Precipitation: Rain, snow, hail, fog, and sleet. Rain, Snow and Hail Wavelength of 2.4 GHz 802.11b/g signal is 4.8 inches Wavelength of 5.7 GHz 802.11a signal is 2 inches Much larger than rain drops and snow, thus do not significantly attenuate these signals. At frequencies 10 GHz and above, partially melted snow and hail do start to cause significant attenuation.
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Weather - Precipitation

Rain can have other effects:

Get inside tiny holes in antenna systems, degrading the performance. Cause surfaces (roads, buildings, leaves) to become more reflective, increasing multipath fading. Tip: Use unobstructed paths between antennas, and do not try to blast through trees, or will have problems.
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Weather - Ice

Collapsed tower

Ice buildup on antenna systems can: Reduce system performance Physically damage the antenna system
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Weather - Wind

The affect of wind:

Antenna on the the mast or tower can turn, decreasing the aim of the antenna. The mast or tower can sway or twist, changing the aim. The antenna, mast or tower could fall potentially injuring someone or something.
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e. Refraction
Sub-Refraction Refraction (straight line) Normal Refraction Earth

Refraction (or bending) of signals is due to temperature, pressure, and

water vapor content in the atmosphere. Amount of refractivity depends on the height above ground. Refractivity is usually largest at low elevations. The refractivity gradient (k-factor) usually causes microwave signals to curve slightly downward toward the earth, making the radio horizon father away than the visual horizon. This can increase the microwave path by about 15%,
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Refraction

Radio waves also bend when entering different materials. This can be very important when analyzing propagation in the

atmosphere. It is not very significant in WLANs, but it is included here, as part of a general background for the behavior of electromagnetic waves.
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f. Multipath Reflection

Reflected signals 1 and 2 take slightly longer paths than direct signal,
arriving slightly later. These reflected signals sometimes cause problems at the receiver by partially canceling the direct signal, effectively reducing the amplitude. The link throughput slows down because the receiver needs more time to either separate the real signal from the reflected echoes or to wait for missed frames to be retransmitted. Solution discussed later.
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Free Space Path Loss

It regards to the distance that RF signals can successfully travel and be received properly. Its the result of the normal attenuation that happens, as the signal gradually weakens over the distance it travels. Factors that determines the effects of FSPL: A. Active gain: AP can amplify the signal B. Passive gain : It comes from the particular shape of the antenna pattern itself.

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FSPL: Formulas

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En el transmisor: La antena transforma la seal elctrica en una onda electromagntica mediante la excitacin de campos elctricos o magnticos en su medio circundante inmediato. En el receptor: La antena captura energa del campo electromagntico y la transforma en corriente y voltaje en el circuito elctrico.

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El campo elctrico o magntico oscilatorio genera una onda electromagntica que se propaga con la velocidad de la luz c . La velocidad de la luz en el espacio vaco c es 299.792.458 m/s. Para efectos prcticos ser : 3x10^8 m/s

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