Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi

PET:518 Elements of Geology

Definition, significance and basic disciplines. Its shape, composition, surface relief, origin and age.
Basic concepts in geodynamics; interior model of earth. lithosphere and plate tectonic. Introduction to minerals, rocks and fossils. Definitions, method of study , description and classification of rock forming minerals and major rock types, rock cycle.

Igneous Rocks its kind, composition, classification and occurrences. Primary features or structures of Igneous.
Metamorphic Rocks, formation, composition, classification and occurrences.

Department of Petroleum Technology University of Karachi PET:518 Elements of Geology

Weathering of Rocks, Mass Wasting, Erosion, Site of Deposition. Environment of Deposition, Kinds of Sediments,Characters of sediments Lithification. Formation of Sedimentary rocks, Primary Sedimentary features on surface of Beds. Sedimentary rocks and their classification. Deformation of rocks: classification of Fold, Fault and Unconformities. Basic concept of stratigraphy and sedimentation.

PET:518 Lab: Identification of common rock forming minerals, rocks and fossils. Study of topographic and geological maps and cross sections. References: Skinner,B.J. & Porter, S.C.The Dynamic Earth Hambilin, W. Earths Dynamic System Guillenmout, J. Elements of Geology

PET518 What is Geology?

Definition of Geology:

Geology is the study of the Earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of those materials, and the processes acting upon them.

It includes the study of the organisms which inhabit our planet.

A very important part of geology is the study of how Earths materials, structures, processes and organisms have changed over time.

What (or who) is a Geologist?

A Geologist is one who studies the history of the earth and its life. Rocks serve as the archives. Geologists are interested in learning How the earth was formed What the earth is made of How the earth changes A Geologist is one who studies the history of the earth.

The Science of Geology

Geologists study rocks at the tops of mountains, beneath the sea, deep in the earth's crust and at the center of the earth. Geologists investigate earthquakes and volcanoes. Geologists study ground water, rivers and glaciers. Geologists unravel past tectonic plate motions. Geologists find gold, diamonds, coal, and oil. Geologists study ancient life (fossils).

PET518 View of the Planet Earth

Geology is classically defined as the study of the Earth. Over the years, however, the geosciences have evolved to encompass a broad range of sub disciplines, each focusing on a specific group of Earth processes. Among these are the following:

PET:518 Branches of Geology PET:518

The two broad areas of the science of geology are (1) Physical geology, is the study of Earth materials and
structures; the processes and forces that act upon them; and how these materials, structures, processes, and forces have changed over time.

(2) Historical geology, which seeks to understand the

origin of Earth and its development through time. The relationship between people and the natural environment is an important focus of geology. This includes natural hazards, resources, and human influences on geologic processes.

Branches of Geology
Physical and Historical geology are further divided

Physical geology includes

1.Mineralogy,
the study of the chemical composition and structure of minerals;

2.Petrology,
the study of the composition and origin of rocks;

3.Geomorphology,
the study of the origin of landforms and their modification by dynamic processes;

Branches of Geology

4.Geochemistry,
the study of the chemical composition of earth materials and the chemical changes that occur within the earth and on its surface;

5.Geophysics,
the study of the behavior of rock materials in response to stresses and according to the principles of physics

6.Sedimentology,
the science of the erosion and deposition of rock particles by wind, water, or ice;

Branches of Geology
7.Structural geology,
the study of the forces that deform the earth's rocks and the description and mapping of deformed rock bodies;

8.Economic geology,
the study of the exploration and recovery of natural resources, such as ores and petroleum; and

9.Engineering geology,
the study of the interactions of the earth's crust with human-made structures such as tunnels, mines, dams, bridges, and building foundations.

Branches of Geology
10.Tectonics
regional to global-scale deformation and structures resulting from interactions among pieces of the Earth's rigid outer layer, or lithosphere

11.Hydrogeology
interrelationships of water and geologic materials and processes

12.Geologic mapping,
the superimposing of geologic information upon existing topographic maps.

Branches of Geology Historical Geology

Historical geology deals with the historical development of the earth from the study of its rocks. They are analyzed to determine their structure, composition, & interrelationships and are examined for remains of past life. Historical geology includes

Paleontology,
the systematic study of past life forms;

Branches of Geology
Historical geologists divide all time since the formation of the earliest known rocks (4.6 billion years ago) into four major divisions the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Each, except the Cenozoic, ended with profound changes in the disposition of the earth's continents and mountains and was characterized by the emergence of new forms of life (see geologic timescale).

PET518 Geology and Other Sciences

Physics
Geophysics
Seismology

Chemistry
Mineralogy Petrology Geochemistry

Biology
Paleontology Paleozoology

Geology
Astronomy
Planetary Geology Helioseismology
Economic Geology Hydrology Engineering Geology

Historical Geology Geomorphology Oceanography Structural Geology Volcanology

PET518 Physical geology

Earth materials
atoms, chemicals, metals, oil, gas, rocks, minerals, salt, gems, coal, sand, gravel, clay, soil, atmosphere, hydrosphere, organisms, etc. How do Earth materials affect people? building materials, fuels, soil to grow food, salt for food, jewelry, we are made of Earth materials

Earth processes
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, continental drift, weather, climate, landslides, subsidence and collapse, tides, geysers, erosion, etc. Any geologic processes recently in the news? How do these processes affect people?

PET518 Historical Geology

A. How old is the Earth? 4.5 to 4.6 billion years (4,500,000,000 to 4,600,000,000 years) Determined through radiometric dating (Uranium, Thorium). Using an instrument called a mass spectrometer. Multicellular life did not appear until about 1 billion years ago. Before this, 3 billion years ago single celled life only. Hard parts like shells don't appear until 600 million years ago. (Trilobites)

PET 518 Origin of the Planet

Origin of the Universe Big Bang Theory evidence: the galaxies are rapidly moving apart Hubble's Law); indicates that galaxies were closer together in the past (This was discovered in 1929 by Edwin P. Hubble.) present abundances of hydrogen and helium interpretation: the universe is expanding; everything began together at a point, and a big explosion occurred, causing things to move apart rapidly

PET518
Formation of stars, galaxies, solar systems, planets, etc. Material begins to clump together as it moves away from the center of the Big Bang. Molecular clouds (raw material for new star systems). "Nebular hypothesis". Nebular means cloud

PET518 Origin of the Earth and Solar System

The sun is in the center of the solar system. Composed primarily of H, He. Our sun is a star. 9 planets orbit or revolve around the sun.

Early History of the Earth

Hot, molten rock
Heat sources? supernova explosion

radioactivity
Segregation of materials in molten Earth Planetary differentiation Gravity causes heavier elements to sink toward center

(Fe, Ni core)
Lighter elements "float" upward (Si, O, Al, K, Na, Ca, etc.) crustal differentiation

PET 518

Earth's Surface

Continents 40% (avg. elevation 840 m above SL; 2750 ft)) (Elevation of Atlanta? 1000 ft) Ocean basins 60% (avg. depth 3800 m; 12,500 ft) (Elevations are largely a reflection of their densities granite vs. basalt) Sea level changes through time (ice caps fluctuate) Most prominent features of continents are linear mountain belts
Circum-Pacific Belt Alpine-Himalaya Belt

Highest point on Earth? Mt. Everest (Himalayas) 8848 m or 29,028 ft

PET:518 Catastrophism & Uniformitarianism,

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, catastrophism influenced the formulation of explanations about Earth. Catastrophism states that Earth's landscapes have been developed primarily by great catastrophes. By contrast, uniformitarianism, one of the fundamental principles of modern geology advanced by James Hutton in the late 1700s, states that the physical, chemical, and biological laws that operate today have also operated in the geologic past.

PET:518 present is the key to the past

The idea is often summarized as "the present is the key to the past." Hutton argued that processes that appear to be slow-acting could, over long spans of time, produce effects that were just as great as those resulting from sudden catastrophic events.

PET:518 Law of superposition

Using the principles of relative dating, the placing of events in their proper sequence or order without knowing their age in years, scientists developed a geologic time scale during the nineteenth century. Relative dates can be established by applying such principles as the law of superposition and the principle of fossil succession.

PET:518 Earth's physical environment Earth's physical environment is traditionally divided into three major parts: the solid Earth; the water portion of our planet, the hydrosphere; and Earth's gaseous envelope, the atmosphere. In addition, the biosphere, the totality of life on Earth, interacts with each of the three physical realms and is an equally integral part of Earth.

PET:518 Two sources of energy

The two sources of energy that power the Earth system are (1) the Sun, which drives the external processes that occur in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and at Earths surface, and (2) heat from Earths interior that powers the internal processes that produce volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains.

PET:518-- Rock

cycle

The rock cycle is one of many cycles or loops of the Earth system in which matter is recycled. The rock cycle is a means of viewing many of the interrelationships of geology. It illustrates the origin of the three basic rock types and the role of various geologic processes in transforming one rock type into another.

PET:518-- Continents and ocean basins. Two principal divisions of Earth's surface are the continents and ocean basins. The continental shelf and continental slope mark the continent-ocean basin transition. Major continental features include mountains and shields. Important zones on the ocean floor are trenches and the extensive oceanic ridge system.

PET 518 Earths Layers

PET:518-- Earths internal structure Earths internal structure is divided into layers based on differences in chemical composition and on the basis of changes in physical properties. Compositionally, Earth is divided into a thin outer crust, a solid rocky mantle, and a dense core. Based on physical properties, the layers of Earth are Five lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core and inner core.

PET:518-- Layers of Earth are

(1) the lithosphere, the cool, rigid outermost layer that averages about 100 kilometers thick, (2) the asthenosphere, a relatively weak layer located in the mantle beneath the lithosphere, (3) the more rigid mesosphere, where rocks are very hot and capable of gradual flow, (4) the liquid outer core where Earths magnetic field is generated, and (5) the solid inner core.

PET:518-- Plate tectonics

The theory of plate tectonics provides a comprehensive model of Earth's internal workings. It holds that Earth's rigid outer lithosphere consists of several segments called plates that are slowly and continually in motion relative to each other. Most earthquakes, volcanic activity, and mountain building are associated with the movements of these plates.

PET:518-- Plate

boundaries

The three distinct types of plate boundaries are (1) divergent boundarieswhere plates move apart; (2) convergent boundarieswhere plates move together, causing one to go beneath the other, or where plates collide, which occurs when the leading edges are made of continental crust; (3) transform fault boundarieswhere plates slide past each other.

PET 518---THE ROCK CYCLE