Folds, Faults, and other Records of Rock Deformation

How Do You Fold Hard Rock?

18th and 19th century geologists were puzzled by how hard, solid rocks could be bent, tilted and fractured What forces could deform hard rocks in such a manner?

Deformation of Rocks
Folding and faulting are the most common forms of deformation in the sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks that compose the Earths crust
Structural Geology is the study of the deformation of rocks and its effects.

Orientation of Deformed Rocks

We need some way to describe the geometry of geologic structures. So we use the terms strike and dip. Strike: compass direction of a rock layer as it intersects with a horizontal surface.

Dip: acute angle between the rock layer and the horizontal surface, measured perpendicular to strike.

Strike and Dip on a Rooftop

Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure

Displaying Strike and Dip on a Map

N

35O
W
Direction of strike
Direction of down dip

Creating a Geological Map and Cross Section

A geological map is a convenient tool which is commonly used by geologists for recording such information and the location of outcrops, the nature of their rocks, and the dips and strikes on inclined layers

What determines if a rock Folds (bends) or faults (breaks)?

Type of force applied
Pressure Temperature

Rock (mineral) composition

Depth at Which the Deformation Occurs is a Direct Factor

At shallow crust depths, rock has a greater probability of breaking At deeper crust depths, rock usually deforms

Strength
Ability of an object to resist deformation

In lab, marble was tested

Fractured Deformed

Strain
Any change in original shape or size of an object in response to stress acting on the object

Three Major Types of Directed Stress

Compression Extension Shear

Compression
Action of oppositely directed forces acting towards each other at the same time

Tension
Action of coinciding and oppositely directed forces acting away from each other

Shear
Action of coinciding and oppositely directed forces acting parallel to each other across a surface

Deformation Textures
As rocks along a fault plane shear past each other, they grind and mechanically fragment solid rock and promote recrystallization under the high pressures

Fault breccias:
Along the fault, the rocks fragment and then are lithified into breccias composed of angular fragments of various sizes

Mylonites
When the deformation along a fault occurs, if the temperature and/or pressure is high enough, you can form metamorphic rocks called mylonites A mylonite rock can display minerals that have been texturally changed by physical movement

Texture deformation in mylonite

Types of Deformation

Elastic Ductile (plastic) Brittle (rupture)

Elastic Deformation

Temporary change in shape or size that is recovered when the deforming force is removed (Like squeezing a piece of rubber)

Ductile (Plastic) Deformation

Permanent change in shape or size Under goes smooth and continuous plastic deformation under stress Does NOT recover original shape

Brittle Deformation (Rupture)

As the applied force is increased, the rock undergoes little change until it suddenly breaks Usually along a zone of weakness

Brittle Versus Ductile

Some rocks are naturally brittle Some rocks are naturally ductile A rock that is brittle at shallow depths can be ductile at greater depths

Factors that Affect Deformation

Temperature
Pressure

Strain rate
Rock type
The variation of these factors determines whether a rock will fault or fold

Effects of Rock Type on Deformation

Some rocks are stronger than others. Competent: rocks that deform only under great stresses Incompetent: rocks that deform under moderate to low stresses

How Rocks Fracture

Joints Faults

Joints

Cracks in rocks along which there has been no appreciable displacement.

Definition of Fault
Fractures in rocks created by tectonic processes (Movement of the rock on both sides of the fault)

Faults
Regardless of size, all faults are classified by the direction of relative movement (which is called slip)

Types of Faults
Dip-slip faults Normal Reverse Strike-slip faults Right-lateral Left-lateral Oblique-slip faults

Faults
Hanging Wall: Term used by miners. They could hang their light on this side of the fault because it was above them. Footwall: Also from the miners, this side of the wall upon which they could stand below the hanging wall.

Dip-slip Faults
Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the dip direction

Two types:
Normal movement is down dip

Reverse movement is up dip

Foot wall

Hanging wall

Normal Fault
hanging wall hanging wall

footwall

footwall

Before

After
cross section

Normal Fault

hanging wall

footwall

cross section

Foot wall

Hanging wall

Reverse Fault
hanging wall

footwall

cross section

Rift Valley

Rift Valley

Thrust Fault
Thrust faults are low-angle reverse faults
hanging wall

footwall

cross section

Strike-slip Faults
Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the strike direction

There are 2 types Right-lateral Left-lateral

Left-lateral

Left-lateral Strike Slip Fault

aerial (map) view

Right-lateral Strike Slip Fault

aerial (map) view

San Andreas Fault (right-lateral)

Displacement both vertically and horizontally

Folding of Rocks
Produced by tectonic forces

Very common form of deformation that is viable in layered rock

Scale can be from centimeters to hundreds of kilometers

Fold Terminology
Axial plane: the plane of mirror symmetry dividing the fold into two limbs Axis: the line formed by the intersection of the axial plane and a bedding plane Horizontal fold: fold where the axis is horizontal Plunging fold: fold where the axis is not horizontal

More Fold Terminology

Syncline: a sequence of folded rocks with the youngest rocks on the inside of the fold Anticline: a sequence of folded rocks with the oldest rocks on the inside of the fold

Some More Fold Terminology

Symmetrical folds: have beds dipping symmetrically on each side of axial plane Asymmetrical folds: have the bed on one side of fold dipping more steeply than other Overturned folds: one or both sides of fold dipping beyond vertical

Asymmetrical folds

Overturned folds

In the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern U.S., most anticlines and synclines are plunging folds rather than horizontal folds

And Even More Fold Terminology

Dome: a sequence of folded rocks in which all the beds dip away from a central point Basin: a sequence of folded rocks in which all the beds dip towards a central point

Syncline exposed in a quarry near Middletown, Virginia

Folds are Clues to a Regions Tectonic History

Valley and Ridge Province Near Appalachian Mountains: Remnants of a Folded Mountain Belt

Dating the Order of Deformation

Use geometry:
Inclusions

Cross-cutting relationships
Combine with fossils and radiometric dating