Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Chapter 2

Atomic - Molecular Theory of Matter

The Atomic - Molecular Theory of Matter states that all matter is composed of small, fast moving particles called atoms. These atoms can join together to form molecules. This theory is really thousands of individual theories that provide evidence for the whole theory.

Matter
Since the atom is too small to be seen even with the most powerful microscopes, it or not this is a scientists rely upon Believe microscope. Even with the models to help us to worlds best microscopes we cannot clearly see the structure or behavior of the understand the atom. atom.

Where did it all begin?

The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos which means indivisible. The idea that all matter is made up of atoms was first proposed by the Greek philosopher Democritus in the 5th century B.C.

History of the Atom

The concept of atoms as proposed by Democritus remained relatively unchanged for over 2,000 years. In the late 18th century new discoveries were made that led to a better understanding of atoms and chemistry. Many scientists since that time have contributed new evidence for the Atomic - Molecular Theory.

Niels Bohr is one of many scientists that have given us a better understanding of Atoms.

Atomic Structure
Nucleus - the central portion of the atom. Contains the protons and neutrons. Electron Cloud - area around the nucleus where electrons are found. Electrons are arranged within the electron cloud in energy levels (Energy levels are sometimes called shells or orbits).

Subatomic Particles
Proton - positive charged particle found in the nucleus. Mass = 1 amu. (a.m.u Atomic Mass Unit) Neutron - particle with no charge. Found in the nucleus. Mass = 1 amu. Electron - negative charged particle found within the electron cloud . Mass = 1/1836 amu.

Why are all Atoms are Electrically Neutral?

Normally in an atom the number of electrons within the electron cloud is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. The positive and negative charges cancel each other out. Therefore, the atom is said to be If an atom gains or loses electrons the atom is no longer neutral . This can happen if the atom absorbs or releases energy The atom is then called an

ION.
IMPORTANT
In all ATOMS the number of positively charged protons is always equal to the number of negatively charged electrons.

electrically neutral.

Daltons Atomic Theory (1808)

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All atoms of a given element are identical. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements. 2. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. The relative number of atoms of each element in a given compound is always the same.

3. Chemical reactions only involve the rearrangement of atoms. Atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical reactions.
2.1

Law of multiple proportion

If two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers

Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass, also known as the principle of mass/matter conservation, states that the mass of an isolated system (closed to all matter and energy) will remain constant over time. This principle is equivalent to the conservation of energy, in the sense when energy or mass is enclosed in a system and none is allowed in or out, its quantity cannot otherwise change (hence, its quantity is "conserved").

A mole is a counting unit. Just like:

12 eggs equals a dozen eggs 144 pencils equals one gross of pencils 60 seconds equals one minute 500 sheets of paper equals one ream

One mole equals 6.022 x 1023 particles

So one mole of eggs would be 6.022 x 1023 eggs One mole of pencils would be 6.022 x 1023 pencils And so on...

Counting Atoms
Chemistry is a quantitative science - we need a "counting unit."
The MOLE 1 mole is the amount of substance that contains as many particles (atoms or molecules) as there are in 12.0 g of C-12.

The Mole is Developed

Carbon Atoms
Number Mass (amu)

Hydrogen Atoms
Number Mass (amu)

Mass Ratio
Mass carbon / Mass hydrogen

12 24 [2 x 12] 120 [10 x 12]

1 2 [2 x 1] 10 [10 x 1]

12 amu = 1 amu 24 amu = 2 amu 120 amu = 10 amu

12 1 12 1 12 1

600 [50 x 12]

50 [50 x 1] Avogadros number (6.02 x 1023) x (1)

600 amu = 50 amu

12 1

Avogadros number

(6.02 x

1023)

x (12)

(6.02 x 1023) x (12) = (6.02 x 1023) x (1)

12 1

Particles in a Mole

Amadeo Avogadro
Amedeo Avogadro (1766-1856) never knew his own number; it was named in his honor by a French scientist in 1909. its value was first estimated by Josef Loschmidt, an Austrian

(1776 1856)

chemistry teacher, in 1895. ? quadrillions trillions billions millions thousands

1 mole = 602213673600000000000000 or 6.022 x 1023

There is Avogadro's number of particles in a mole o

Careers in Chemistry Philosopher

Q: How much is a mole? A: A mole is a quantity used by chemists to count atoms and molecules. A mole of something is equal to 6.02 x 1023 somethings.

1 mole = 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000

Q: Can you give me an example to put that number in perspective? A: A computer that can count 10,000,000 atoms per second would take 2,000,000,000 years to count 1 mole of a substance.

Counting to 1 Mole
Is that right? A computer counting 10 million atoms every second would need to count for 2 billion years to count just a single mole. Lets look at the mathematics. x sec = 1 year 365 days 24 hours 60 min 60 sec = 31,536,000 sec 1 year 1 day 1 hour 1 min

Therefore 1 year has 31,536,000 seconds or 3.1536 x 107 sec. A computer counting 10,000,000 atoms every second could count 3.153 x 1014 atoms every year.

Finally, 6.02 x 1023 atoms divided by 3.1536 x 1014 atoms every year equals 1,908,929,477 years or approximately 2 billion years!

How Big is a Mole?

One mole of marbles would cover the entire Earth (oceans included) for a depth of three miles.

One mole of $100 bills stacked one on top of another would reach from the Sun to Pluto and back 7.5 million times.

It would take light 9500 years to travel from the bottom to the top of a stack of 1 mole of $1 bills.

Avogadros Number
A MOLE of any substance contains as many elementary units (atoms and molecules) as the number of atoms in 12 g of the isotope of carbon-12. This number is called AVOGADROs number NA = 6.02 x 1023 particles/mol The mass of one mole of a substance is called MOLAR MASS symbolized by MM Units of MM are g/mol Examples H2 hydrogen 2.02 g/mol He helium 4.0 g/mol N2 nitrogen 28.0 g/mol O2 oxygen 32.0 g/mol CO2 carbon dioxide 44.0 g/mol

1 Mole of Particles

Moles
Defined as the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. 1 mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles. Treat it like a very large dozen 6.02 x 1023 is called Avogadros number.

Avogadros Number
It is the number of atoms, molecules and ins in one gram atom of an element, one gram molecule and one gram ion of a substance. 6.02 x 1023 is called Avogadros number. it is represented by NA

Mole Problem Solving Strategy

Example: How many eggs are in 8 dozen?

1. List what you know. (What was given in the problem?) 2. Setup the problem. Dont forget your units and show every step. 3. NOW, and only now, use your calculator to verify the answer.

1. # of dozen = 8 dozen # of eggs = ? Eggs 2. 8 dozen x 12eggs =?eggs

1dozen

8 dozen x 12eggs =?eggs

1dozen

3. 8 x

12eggs 1

= 96 eggs

Looks easy right Now you try one: How many pencils are in 9 gross?
1. List what you know. 1. # of gross = 9 gross (What was given in # of pencils = ?pencils the problem?) 2. 2. Setup the problem. 9 gross X 144 pencils= ?pencils Dont forget your 1gross units and show every 144 pencils 9 gross X =?pencils step. 1gross 3. NOW, and only 144 pencils now, use your 3. 9 x = 1 calculator to verify the 1296pencils answer.

This strategy can also be used with the mole concept.

How many atoms are in 3.5 moles of copper?
1.The procedure is the same. List what you know. 2. Notice that 3.5 moles is in the numerator and then 1 mol is in the denominator. This allows you to cross out units. 3. Now calculate the answer. Does it make sense?

1. # of moles of Cu = 3.5 mol

# of Cu atoms = ? 2. 23 3.5 mol Cu x 6.022 x10 atoms Cu 1 mol Cu = ? atoms Cu 3.5 mol Cu x 6.022 x10 23 atoms Cu 1 mol Cu = ? atoms Cu 3.5 x atoms Cu
6.022 x10 23 atoms Cu 1

= 2.1x 1024

You can also convert from atoms to moles YEAH!!

How many moles are in 3.01 x 1023 atoms of Sodium?

1. # of Na atoms = 3.01 x 1023 atoms # of moles of Na = ? 3.01 x

3.01 x 3.01 x

1023

1 mole Na atoms x = ? mol Na 23 6.022x10 atoms Na 1 mole Na atoms x = ? mol Na 23 6.022x10 atoms Na

1023 1023

1 mole Na x 6.022x1023

= 0.500 mol Na

Now calculate: How many atoms

are in 7.5 mol of Argon?
1. # of moles of Ar = 7.5 mol # of atoms of Ar = ? atoms
23 2. 7.5 mol Ar x 6.022 x10 atoms Ar = ? atoms Ar

1 mol Ar
23 6 . 022 x 10 atoms Ar = ? atoms Ar 7.5 mol Ar x 1 mol Ar

3. 7.5 x

6.022 x10 23 atoms Ar 1

= 4.52 x 1024 atoms Ar

Now in small groups try the following practice problems

1. How many atoms are present in 3.7 mol of sodium? 2. How many atoms are present in 155 mol of arsenic? 3. How many moles of xenon is 5.66 x 1026 atoms?

If you showed all the steps, the correct answers are:

1.
2. 3.

2.2 x 1024 Na atoms

9.33 x 1025 As atoms 940. mol Xe

Mole Concept
When a substance at our disposal is an element then the atomic mass of that element exprssed in grams is called one gram atom it is also called one gram mole or simply a mole of an element. no of gram atoms or moles of an element= mass of element in grams/molar mass of an element
1 gram atom of hydrogen= 1.008g 1 gram atom of carbon=12.00g gram atom of uranium=238.0g

The structure of the atom

Particle Proton Neutron Relative Mass 1 1 Relative Charge 1 0

Electron

-1

MASS NUMBER = number of protons + number of neutrons

SYMBOL
PROTON NUMBER = number of protons (obviously)

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus
Mass Number Atomic Number

A ZX 2 1H

Element Symbol

1 1H

(D)
238 92

3 1H

(T)

235 92

U
2.3

Atomic mass

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS, Ar (Mass number) = number of protons + number of neutrons SYMBOL
PROTON NUMBER = number of protons (obviously)

08/12/2013

Isotopes
All atoms of an element have the same number of protons but the number of neutrons can vary. Atoms with the same number of protons and differing numbers of neutrons are called ISOTOPES. Some Isotopes are unstable. The nucleus of unstable atoms do not hold together well. Radioactive decay is the process whereby the nucleus of unstable isotopes release fast moving particles and energy.

The discovery of Radioactivity almost happened by accident.

Henri Becquerel.

Isotopes
An isotope is an atom with a different number of neutrons:

Notice that the mass number is different. How many neutrons does each isotope have?

Each isotope has 8 protons if it didnt then it just

wouldnt be oxygen any more.

H.T
C12

The Ar of an element compares the mass of atoms with the isotope. It is an average value of the isotopes of the element.

Relative formula mass, Mr

The relative formula mass of a compound is blatantly the relative atomic masses of all the elements in the compound added together.

E.g. water H2O:

Relative atomic mass of O = 16 Relative atomic mass of H = 1

Therefore Mr for water = 16 + (2x1) = 18

Work out Mr for the following compounds:
1) HCl H=1, Cl=35 so Mr = 36

2) NaOH
3) MgCl2 4) H2SO4 5) K2CO3

Na=23, O=16, H=1 so Mr = 40

Mg=24, Cl=35 so Mr = 24+(2x35) = 94 H=1, S=32, O=16 so Mr = (2x1)+32+(4x16) = 98 K=39, C=12, O=16 so Mr = (2x39)+12+(3x16) = 138

More examples
CaCO3 HNO3 2MgO 3H2O 4NH3 2KMnO4 3C2H5OH 4Ca(OH)2 40 + 12 + 3x16 1 + 14 + 3x16 2 x (24 + 16) 3 x ((2x1) + 16) 80 100

Moles The relative formula mass of a substance, in grams, is known as 1 mole of that substance. E.g. 18g of H2O = 1 mole of H2O

Calculating percentage mass

If you can work out Mr then this bit is easy
Percentage mass (%) = Mass of element Ar Relative formula mass Mr x100%

Calculate the percentage mass of magnesium in magnesium oxide, MgO: Ar for magnesium = 24 Ar for oxygen = 16 Mr for magnesium oxide = 24 + 16 = 40 Therefore percentage mass = 24/40 x 100% = 60%

Calculate the percentage mass of the following:

1) Hydrogen in hydrochloric acid, HCl 2) Potassium in potassium chloride, KCl 3) Calcium in calcium chloride, CaCl2 4) Oxygen in water, H2O

Why isnt r.a.m. always a whole number?

Relative atomic mass (r.a.m.) is not always a whole number. For example, the r.a.m. of chlorine is 35.5.
The standard r.a.m. value of each element is actually the average relative atomic mass, which takes all the isotopes of each element into account.

Chlorine has two isotopes: chlorine-35 (75%) and chlorine-37 (25%). = (35 x 75%) + (37 x 25%) average r.a.m. of chlorine = (35 x 0.75) + (37 x 0.25) = 26.25 + 9.25 = 35.5

Calculating average r.a.m. from isotopes

To calculate the average r.a.m. of a mixture of isotopes, multiply the percentage of each isotope by its relative atomic mass and then add these together.

Naturally-occurring bromine is composed of two isotope bromine-79 (50.5%) and bromine-81 (49.5%).

What is the average r.a.m. of naturally-occurring bromine?

average = (79 x 50.5%) + (81 x 49.5%) r.a.m. = (79 x 0.505) + (81 x 0.495) = 39.895 + 40.095 = 79.99 This figure can be rounded up.

Isotopic Composition of Some Common Elements

ELEMENT Hydrogen ISOTOPES
1H 2H 3H

RELATIVE ISOTOPIC MASS 1.008 2.014 3.016 12 exactly 13.003 14.003 15.995 16.999 17.999 106.9 108.9

ABUNDANCE (%) 99.986 0.014 0.001 98.888 1.112 Approx 10-10 99.76 0.04 0.20 51.8 48.2

Carbon

12C 13C 14C

Oxygen

16O 17O 18O

Silver

107Ag 108Ag

Do You Understand Isotopes?

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 14 6 6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 11 6 6 protons, 5 (11 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons

C?

C?

2.3

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds

H2

H2O

NH3

CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
2.5

An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge. cation ion with a positive charge If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a cation. Na
11 protons 11 electrons

Na+

11 protons 10 electrons

anion ion with a negative charge If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion. Cl
17 protons 17 electrons

Cl-

17 protons 18 electrons 2.5

Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons.

An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.

positive ions negative ions Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged gained electron ions. Na loses an
electron to CI ionic bond

Sodium atom (Na)

Chlorine atom (CI)

Sodium ion (Na+)

Chloride ion (CI-)

A monatomic ion contains only one atom Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-

A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-

2.5

Do You Understand Ions?

+ 27 3 How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?

13 protons, 10 (13 3) electrons

2- ? Se How many protons and electrons are in 78 34

34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

2.5

2.5

2.6

A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance molecular
H2O

empirical
H2O CH2O O NH2
2.6

C6H12O6
O3 N2H4

Molecular formula
The chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol and indicates the number of atoms of each element found in each discrete molecule of that compound. If a molecule contains more than one atom of a particular element, this quantity is indicated using a subscript after the chemical symbol (although 18th-century books often used superscripts) and also can be combined by more chemical elements.

Empirical Formula
Empirical Formula A formula that gives the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms of each element in a compound.

Molecular Formula H2O2 C6H12O6 CH3O CH3OOCH = C2H4O2

Empirical Formula HO CH2O CH3O CH2O

 For example, the chemical compound nhexane has the structural formula CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3, which shows that it has 6 carbon atoms arranged in a chain, and 14 hydrogen atoms. Hexane's molecular formula is C6H14, and its empirical formula is C3H7, showing a C:H ratio of 3:7. Different compounds can have the same empirical formula.

 For example, formaldehyde, acetic acid and glucose have the same empirical formula, CH2O. This is the actual molecular formula for formaldehyde, but acetic acid has double the number of atoms and glucose has six times the number of atoms.

Determine the empirical formula for a compound containing 2.128 g Cl and 1.203 g Ca.

Steps 1. Find mole amounts. 2. Divide each mole by the smallest mole.

1. Find mole amounts.

2.128 g Cl x 1 mol Cl = 0.0600 mol Cl 35.45 g Cl 1.203 g Ca x 1 mol Ca = 0.0300 mol Ca 40.08 g Ca

2. Divide each mole by the smallest mole.

Cl = 0.0600 mol Cl = 2.00 mol Cl 0.0300 Ca = 0.0300 mol Ca = 1.00 mol Ca 0.0300 Ratio 1 Ca: 2 Cl Empirical Formula = CaCl2

A compound weighing 298.12 g consists of 72.2% magnesium and 27.8% nitrogen by mass. What is the empirical formula?
Hint Percent to mass Mass to mole Divide by small Multiply til whole

A compound weighing 298.12 g consists of 72.2% magnesium and 27.8% nitrogen by mass. What is the empirical formula? Percent to mass:Mg (72.2%/100)*298.12 g =215.24 g N (27.8%/100)*298.12 g = 82.88 g Mass to mole: Mg 215.24 g * ( 1 mole ) = 8.86mol 24.3 N 82.88 g * ( 1 mole ) = 5.92mol 14.01g Divide by small: Mg - 8.86 mole/5.92 mole = 1.50 N - 5.92 mole/5.92 mole = 1.00 Multiply til whole: Mg 1.50 x 2 = 3.00 Mg3N2 N 1.00 x 2 = 2.00

Molecular Formula
The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecular compound.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Steps Find the empirical formula. Calculate the Empirical Formula Mass. Divide the molar mass by the EFM. Multiply empirical formula by factor.

Find the molecular formula for a compound whose molar mass is ~124.06 and empirical formula is CH2O3.
2. 3. 4. EFM = 62.03 g 124.06/62.03 = 2 2(CH2O3) = C2H4O6

Relation ship between empirical and molecular formula

Molecular formula= n* empirical formula.

n=molecular mass/ empirical formula mass

Find the molecular formula for a compound that contains 4.90 g N and 11.2 g O. The molar mass of the compound is 92.0 g/mol.

Steps 1. Find the empirical formula. 2. Calculate the Empirical Formula Mass. 3. Divide the molar mass by the EFM. 4. Multiply empirical formula by factor.

Empirical formula.
A. Find mole amounts. 4.90 g N x 1 mol N = 0.350 mol N 14.01 g N

11.2 g O x 1 mol O = 0.700 mol O 16.00 g O

B.Divide each mole by the smallest mole. N = 0.350 = 1.00 mol N 0.350 O = 0.700 = 2.00 mol O 0.350 Empirical Formula = NO2 Empirical Formula Mass = 46.01 g/mol n=92/46=2 2(NO2)=N2O4

Finding the Molecular Formula

A compound is Cl 71.65%, C 24.27%, and H 4.07%. What are the empirical and molecular formulas? The molar mass is known to be 99.0 g/mol.
1. State mass percents as grams in a 100.00-g sample of the compound. Cl 71.65 g C 24.27 g H 4.07 g
Timberlake LecturePLUS 68

2. Calculate the number of moles of each element. 71.65 g Cl x 1 mol Cl = 2.02 mol Cl 35.5 g Cl 24.27 g C x 1 mol C 12.0 g C = 2.02 mol C

4.07 g H x

1 mol H 1.01 g H

= 4.04 mol H
69

Timberlake LecturePLUS

Why moles?
Why do you need the number of moles of each element in the compound?

Timberlake LecturePLUS

70

3. Find the smallest whole number ratio by dividing each mole value by the smallest mole values: Cl: 2.02 = 1 Cl 2.02 C: H: 2.02 2.02 = 1C

4.04 = 2H 2.02 4. Write the simplest or empirical formula Timberlake LecturePLUS CH2Cl

71

5. EM (empirical mass)
= 1(C) + 2(H) + 1(Cl) = 49.5 6. n = molar mass/empirical mass Molar mass EM = 99.0 g/mol = n = 2 49.5 g/EM

7.Molecular formula (CH2Cl)2 = C2H4Cl2

Timberlake LecturePLUS 72

Learning Check EF-5

Aspirin is 60.0% C, 4.5 % H and 35.5 O. Calculate its simplest formula. In 100 g of aspirin, there are 60.0 g C, 4.5 g H, and 35.5 g O.

Timberlake LecturePLUS

73

Solution EF-5
60.0 g C x ___________= ______ mol C

4.5 g H

x ___________ = _______mol H

35.5 g O x ___________ = _______mol O

Timberlake LecturePLUS 74

Solution EF-5
60.0 g C x 1 mol C =
12.0 g C

5.00 mol C

4.5 g H

1 mol H
1.01 g H

4.5 mol H

35.5 g O x

1mol O =
16.0 g O

2.22 mol O
75

Timberlake LecturePLUS

Divide by the smallest # of moles. 5.00 mol C = ________________ ______ mol O 4.5 mol H = ______ mol O ________________

2.22 mol O = ________________ ______ mol O Are are the results whole numbers?_____
Timberlake LecturePLUS 76

Divide by the smallest # of moles. 5.00 mol C = ___2.25__ 2.22 mol O 4.5 mol H 2.22 mol O = ___2.00__

2.22 mol O = ___1.00__ 2.22 mol O Are are the results whole numbers?_____
Timberlake LecturePLUS 77

Finding Subscripts
A fraction between 0.1 and 0.9 must not be

rounded. Multiply all results by an integer to give whole numbers for subscripts.
(1/2) (1/3) (1/4) (3/4) 0.5 0.333 0.25 0.75 x 4 x2 x3 x4 = = = = 3 1 1 1

Timberlake LecturePLUS

78

Multiply everything x 4
C: 2.25 mol C H: 2.0 mol H O: 1.00 mol O x 4 = 9 mol C x 4 = 8 mol H x 4 = 4 mol O

Use the whole numbers of mols as the subscripts in the simplest formula

C9H8O4
Timberlake LecturePLUS 79