Research

Dr. Sushil Kumar Singh

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, LFEH LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY PUNJAB

1. What is Research??..
Research is ;
a systematic, objective, reproducible and deliberate attempt to answer meaningful questions pertaining to a
field of study or about phenomenon or events in a given situation.

a systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to
the development of generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.

Educational Research;
A systematic, objective and deliberate attempt to answer meaningful questions
pertaining to educational processes, forms, organizations and thoughts.

Characteristics of Research
Research;
Is directed towards the solution of a problem Infers characteristics of target population from the sample observed Based upon observable experience and empirical evidence Demands accurate observation and description; good research utilizes valid and reliable data gathering procedures Requires expertise Is characterized as a patient and unhurried activity Is carefully recorded and reported

What Research is Not??...

A mere gathering of facts or information Moving facts from one situation to another; assembly of information As an esoteric activity, far removed from practical life As a word to get your product noticed Fault finding in some device

Types of Research
Basic Research
Called pure or fundamental research; physical, behavioural and social sciences

Applied Research
Education, engineering, medical

Evaluation Research
Includes action research and policy studies

2. Approaches of Research
Two Approaches:
Quantitative Approach Qualitative Approach The terms refer to the;
Distinctions about the nature of knowledge: how one understands the world and the ultimate purpose of the research Research methods How data are collected and analyzed Types of generalizations derived from the data

Most obvious distinction is the form of data presentation Both approaches are used in educational research

Approaches of Research
Quantitative research;
Presents statistical results represented with numbers
uses quantitative method to describe what is, describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that exist. Involves some type of comparison or contrast and attempt to discover relationships between existing non-manipulated variables. Uses some form of statistical analysis to describe the results of the study.

Qualitative Research;
Presents facts in a narration with words
Uses non-quantitative method to describe what is. Uses systematic procedures to discover non-quantifiable relationships between existing variables

Different assumptions as basis of different Approaches

Assumption

Quantitative Approach
Logical Positivist Philosophy; there are social facts with single objective reality, separated from the feelings and beliefs of the individuals Seeks to establish relationships and explain causes of changes in measured social facts Pre-established designs, set of procedures and steps that guide the researcher Researcher employes experimental or correlational designs to reduce errors, bias and extraneous variables Detached from study to avoid bias

Qualitative Approach
Naturalistic phenomenological philosophy; multiple realities are socially constructed through individual and collective definitions of the situation More concerned with understanding the social phenomenon from the participants perspectives Researcher uses an emergent design and makes decisions about data collection strategies during the study. Seeks to take into a/c subjectivity in data analysis and interpretation; Study of ongoing events: ethnography Study of past events: historical research Immersed in the situation and phenomenon being studied with disciplined subjectivity

The World

Research Purpose Research method and process Prototypical study Researcher Role

Importance of Attempts to establish the Context in universal context-free the Study generalizations

Believes human actions being strongly influenced by the settings in which they occur and develops context bound generalizations.

3. Positivism
Auguste Comte (17981857);
The founder of positivism, a philosophical and political movement which enjoyed a very wide diffusion in the second half of the nineteenth century. It sank into an almost complete oblivion during the twentieth, when it was eclipsed by neo-positivism. Developed successively a philosophy of mathematics, a philosophy of physics, a philosophy of chemistry and a philosophy of biology, and became the first philosopher of science in the modern sense His political philosophy, on the other hand, is even less known, because it differs substantially from the classical political philosophy we have inherited

Positivism
Being positive means being certain or affirmative. So this approach believes knowledge as worthy which is based on empiricism.

Empiricism means;
application of observation and experiment, and not theory, in determining something philosophical belief that all knowledge is derived from the experience of the senses medicine that is based on practical experience, and not on theory or logical proof The approach advocates for use of scientific method of inquiry. It relies on objectivity and rejects subjectivity. It hails that deviance is real. Deviants deviate, but objectivity is a must. It seeks understanding of cause and effect relationship.

Positivism
Critiques
By studying only the objective features of an act, meaning is ignored. As opposed by constructionists;
Meaning is the heart of social process. Meaning is not inherent in the act, it must be constructed. An act is nothing until it is categorized, conceptualized and interpreted.

Causality, or to say that one factor caused or causes another, cannot be determined with any real degree of precision. True objectivity is impossible. Every observer is to a degree contaminated by personal, political and ideological sympathies. We cannot avoid taking sides.

4. phenomenology
Phenomenon: occurrence, observable fact,
experience, happening, incident, trend, etc.

The concept of Phenomenology was propounded by Edmund Husserl (1859-1938).

a philosopher and mathematician and the founder of the 20th century philosophical school of phenomenology

Phenomenology is both a philosophy and a research method. Basic idea in this approach is
To study and describe objects and events only by what could be seen clearly. Anything else that is not immediately conscious is to be excluded.

purpose
The phenomenological approach illuminates the specific, to identify phenomena through how they are perceived by the actors in a situation It is concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the individual Epistemologically, phenomenological approaches are based in a paradigm of personal knowledge and subjectivity, and emphasize the importance of personal perspective and interpretation. Phenomenological research has overlaps with other essentially qualitative approaches including ethnography, hermeneutics and symbolic interactionism A variety of methods can be used in phenomenological-based research, including interviews, conversations, participant observation, action research, focus meetings and analysis of personal texts.

Analysis
Phenomenological research generates a large quantity of interview notes, tape recordings, jottings or other records all of which have to be analyzed
Analysis is necessarily disorganized, as data doesnt tend to fall into neat categories and there can be many ways of linking between different parts of discussions or observations.

phenomenology
Phenomenologists agree that there is not a single reality, each individual has his or her own reality. This is considered true even of the researchers experience in collecting data and analyzing it. The researcher, in the phenomenological study, identifies the phenomenon to explore and then develops the research questions. Data are collected through a variety of means: observation, interactive interviews, video tape and written descriptions by subjects. The outcome of data analysis is a theoretical statement responding to the research question.

5. ethno-methodology
Ethnomethodology can be broken down into its three constituent parts: ethno + method + (o)logy;
Ethno refers to a particular socio-cultural group (for
example, a particular, localized community of surfers );

Method refers to the methods and practices this

particular group employs in its everyday activities (related to surfing); and

(o)logy refers to the methodic description of these

methods and practices.

Ethnomethodology
An approach to sociological inquiry introduced by the American sociologist Harold Garfinkel [1917-2011].
Ethnomethodology's research domain is the study of the everyday methods people employ for the production of social order. The fundamental assumption of ethnomethodological studies is characterized by Anne Rawls:
"If one assumes, as Garfinkel does, that the meaningful, patterned, and orderly character of everyday life is something that people must work constantly to achieve, then one must also assume that they have some methods for doing so". That is, "... members of society must have some shared methods that they use to mutually construct the meaningful orderliness of social situations"

Aim of Ethnographical Research

The aim of ethnographer is to learn from (rather than to study) members of a cultural group- to understand their world view as they define it.

Perspectives in ethnographic research:

There are two perspectives in ethnographic research- emic and etic perspectives.
Emic perspective: Refers to the way the members of the
culture envision their world- it is the insiders view.

Etic perspective: Refers to the outsiders interpretation

of experiences of that culture.

Characteristics of Ethnographic study

Ethnographer invariably take extensive field research to learn about the cultural group in which they are interested. It is a labour intensive endeavour and requires a long period of time to complete the study. The researcher strives to participate in cultural events and activities. It requires intimacy with the members of the cultural group, that requires active involvement of the researcher.

Methodology

Identification of the culture to be studied (e.g. Garo, Kandh, Bhils etc.) Indentifying significant variables within the culture (living conditions, food, habits etc.) Literature review (related studies on the group/culture) Gaining entrance (preliminary formalities for conducting study) Cultural immersion( getting mixed, developing intimacy with the group) Acquiring informants( potential respondents- insiders and outsiders) Gathering data(primarily through observation and interview) Analysis of data(identifying meaning to objects/events by members of the culture) Description of culture( validation of meaning/data) Theory development( findings and conclusions)

6. clinical approach
Clinical Research
The National Institute of Health (NIH) defines clinical research as Patient oriented research which includes the involvement of human subjects or any other human material which necessitates an interface between a researcher and an individual. Patient oriented research incorporates mechanisms of human disease, therapeutic interventions and clinical trials (NIH). Clinical research is also associated with the examination of issues related to health under the category of epidemic and behavioral studies, while recognizing the most effectual and possible ways of intervention, treatment and services (NIH).

clinical approach
Clinical research is a branch of Medical Science that determines the safety and effectiveness of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease.
In the European Union, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) acts in a set fashion to conducted the studies in their region. These human studies are conducted in four phases in research subjects that give consent to participate in the clinical trials.

Phase 1 trials
Usually deal with investigating the studied drug on a minor number of research subjects who are healthy volunteers. This phase is mainly targeted at identifying the safety, tolerability, and the general mechanism of the action of the drug in humans. These studies are usually conducted in tightly controlled clinics called CPUs (Central Pharmacological Units), where participants receive 24-hour medical attention and oversight. In some diseases where therapy is too toxic (some cancer medications, for instance), phase 1 trials are performed on patients with that disease to test the parameters.

Phase 2 trials
The goal is to grasp additional understanding of the studied drug's safety and efficacy. It also determines the appropriate dose to be administered to deliver the desired treatment effect while minimizing the safety risk of future research subjects. This usually requires more than 100 patients to demonstrate relevant results, although the actual number of subjects varies widely based on the disease under study. Thus, multiple clinics are utilized to recruit subjects with the disease under study to sufficiently enroll the study(ies) in a reasonable period of time.

Phase 3 trials
Multiple phase 2 studies are often required to define the appropriate patient population to study during phase 3. Once the drug is deemed potentially safe and effective in Phase 2, it is then studied in Phase 3 trials. This phase exposes more than 1000 research subjects with the disease, and is usually performed at many clinics (well over 100) to enroll the trial (or trials). The focus is on studying the effectiveness of drug on variety of demographic and socioeconomic subjects with variants of the disease under study. A comparison is usually made with standard drugs available on the market. It is imperative that the drug is shown to be effective and safe in this phase. When phase 3 trials are completed, a New Drug Application (NDA) containing all manufacturing, pre-clinical, and clinical data is filed with the FDA for review. If deemed safe and effective, the FDA grants approval of the NDA, which then allows the company to market the product. This approval usually comes with strict requirements for the company to conduct additional studies to keep the NDA active (usually involving pediatric trials and additional safety trials).

Phase 4 trials
The aim is to further characterize the safety of the drug through the identification of unknown adverse reactions and to potentially research new therapeutic indications. Companies often use this phase to gain exposure to different physicians and clinics, which aids in the marketing of their product. The entire process of a drug from lab to market may take approximately 12 to 18 years, costing billions of dollars (but not always).

Further trials
Clinical research continues throughout the lifetime of the test article to include post marketing surveillance, where a periodic 'progress report' is submitted to the regulatory authorities once every 2 years after the test article is released into the market, and such as pharmaco-vigilance, where the safety of marketed drugs, biologics or medical devices are monitored. The focus of clinical research is wide enough to include important items such as data management, medical writing, regulatory consultation, and biostatistics. The clinical trials are regulated by country specific Health Regulatory Agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the U.S. and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in the European Union.

7. triangulation
Triangulation
Is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two sources. Refers to the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.

By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers can hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems that come from single method, single-observer and single-theory studies.

Purpose
The purpose of triangulation in qualitative research is to increase the credibility and validity of the results. Several scholars have aimed to define triangulation ;
Cohen and Manion (1986) define triangulation as an "attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behavior by studying it from more than one standpoint. Altrichter et al. (2008) contend that triangulation "gives a more detailed and balanced picture of the situation.

ODonoghue and Punch (2003), triangulation is a method of cross-checking data from multiple sources to search for regularities in the research data."

Types
Denzin (1978) identified four basic types of triangulation:
Investigator triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an investigation Data triangulation: involves time, space, and persons Methodological triangulation: involves using more than one method to gather data, such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, and documents. Theory triangulation: involves using more than one theoretical scheme in the interpretation of the phenomenon

8. Grounded Theory
Developed in the School of Nursing, University of California San Francisco by sociologists Glaser and Strauss Influenced by Symbolic Interactionism (Blumer 1969: 2)
Human beings act towards things on the basis of the meanings that these things have for them The meaning of such things is derived from, and arises out of, the social interaction that one has with ones fellows These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with the thing he encounters.

aim of grounded theory

to generate or discover a theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) Grounded theory may be defined as:
the discovery of theory from data systematically obtained from social research (Glaser and Strauss 1967: 2).

A systematic research methodology used in social sciences involving the discovery of theory through the analysis of data. Mainly used in qualitative research, but is also applicable to quantitative data.

When would you use it?

Focus of the methodology is uncovering basic social processes
Ideal for exploring integral social relationships and the behaviour of groups where there has been little exploration of the contextual factors that affect individuals lives.(Crooks 2001) get though (and beyond conjecture and preconception to) exactly the underlying processes of what is going on, so that professionals can intervene with confidence to help resolve the participant's main concerns (Glaser 1978)

Features of Grounded Theory

Charmaz (1995, 2002) identifies a number of features that all grounded theories have:
simultaneous collection and analysis of data creation of analytic codes and categories developed from data and not by pre-existing conceptualizations (theoretical sensitivity) discovery of basic social processes in the data inductive construction of abstract categories theoretical sampling to refine categories writing analytical memos as the stage between coding and writing the integration of categories into a theoretical framework.

Data collection methods

all is data
In-depth interviews
Most commonly used Relies on open ended questions Questions can be modified to reflect emerging theory

Observational methods Focus Group

Can be used

Theoretical sensitivity
Researchers will become theoretically sensitive by
immersing themselves in the data and trying to understand what the participants see as being significant and important

Concurrent data collection/analysis allows the researcher to become theoretically sensitive to the data Begin with as few predetermined ideas as possible
Existing literature and theory, and prior knowledge and experience of the researcher, can also be used to inform the development of categories, but the categories should not be forced to fit the literature, and should not be used to create categories.

The role of the literature review

To achieve theoretical sensitivity, the researcher must begin with as few predetermined ideas, particularly hypotheses, as possible so as to become as sensitive to the data as possible.
This does not mean that the researcher must start with a tabula rasa, as is often assumed. it is how prior knowledge is used that makes the difference; used to inform our analysis rather than to direct it.

An open mind not an empty head (Dey 1999)

Literature can be used as data and constantly compared with the emerging categories to be integrated in the theory (Glaser 1992)

Theoretical sampling
Glaser and Strauss (1967) indicate that theoretical sampling is the process of data collection for generating theory whereby
the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyses his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find it, in order to develop theory as it emerges (Glaser and Strauss 1967: 45).

Charmaz (1990) suggests that theoretical sampling is best used when some key concepts have been discovered.
Initial data collection is commenced with a fairly random group of people, who have experienced the phenomenon under study, to begin to develop concepts. Theoretical sampling is then used to generate further data to confirm and refute original categories.

Data Analysis: Memo Writing

The codes and categories go some way towards analysis, but until the analysis has been fully written up it is not complete Memo writing is the intermediate step between coding and the first draft of your completed study
hypotheses and ideas recorded during analysis not be treated as complete and fixed, as they are initial analytical thoughts and can be altered as thinking changes

Useful to go back to the field to test out some of the assumptions developed in the memo Documents the development of theory audit trail

9. Internal Validity in Quantitative Research

Internal Validity
As the extent of control over extraneous variables, is strongest when the design of the study (subjects, instruments and procedures) effectively controls possible sources of error so that those sources are not reasonably related to the results of the study. Campbell and Stanley (1963) define it as the basic requirement for a quantitative research or an experiment to be interpretable - did the experiment make a difference in this instance? Eight extraneous variables can interfere with internal validity

History
History refers to the extraneous incidents or events affecting the results that occur during the research
Suppose a researcher wishes to find out the effectiveness of two teaching methods; while teaching through one of the method in the middle the light goes out, the students, work is disrupted and they lose concentration. Specific events occurring between the first and second measurements in an experimental research

Events affecting research that occur within the context of the study are called threats due to local history, and such problems pose a potential threat to any type of research.

Maturation
It refers to changes in the subjects of a study over time
Growing older Getting hungry Getting tired or discouraged

Selection
The threat of selection exists whenever groups of subjects are not assigned randomly Where randomization is undesirable or impossible, the researcher can use the different approaches like; matching, testing subjects more than once, adjusting posttest scores on the basis of initially measured group characteristics (ANCOVA)
Example: Suppose we want to investigate whether the mastery or discovery approach is better for teaching adjectives and adverbs. The two groups selected for experiment were having average IQ 115 and 95. Here selection of the groups will become the major problem.

Statistical Regression
Operating where groups have been selected on the basis of their extreme scores. It refers to the tendency of subjects who score very high or very low on a pretest to score closer to the mean (regress to the mean) on the posttest, regardless of the effects of the treatment. All the measures may have some degree of error, and statistical regression occurs because of changes in error from the pretest to the posttest.

Instrumentation
It refers to the way changes in the instruments used to collect data might affect the results
This threat is serious in observational research when observer may get bored or fatigued

Pretesting: Taking a pretest could provide the

subject with practice on the type of questions asked or familiarize the subject with the material tested
In research on attitudes or values

Testing is a change in the subject resulting from taking the test, while instrumentation is a change in the subject resulting from the testing itself

Subject Attrition
Attrition or mortality occurs in a study when subjects systematically drop out or are lost during the investigation
Threat to many longitudinal studies and experimental researches

Diffusion of treatment
In an experiment there are
Experimental + Control Group If treatment or incentive would be exposed to both the groups together, they will be aware of the conditions of the others and may be affected by both the treatments, resulting in diffusion of treatment

Experimenter Effect
Refers to both deliberate and unintentional influences that the experimenter has on the subjects
Being more reassuring to one group than to others Reinforcing different behaviours Selectively observing different subject responses Clothing, age, sex, educational level and race of experimenter

10. External Validity in Quantitative Research

External validity
Refers to the generalizability of the results. Addresses the question of generalizability to whom can we generalize these research findings?

Two General Categories of External Validity

Population External Validity Ecological External validity

Population External Validity

Subjects used in an investigation have certain characteristics; age, race, sex and ability The results of a study can be generalized only to other people who have the same, or at least the similar, characteristics as those used in the study The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other people is known as population external validity.
Research conducted on elementary students should not be generalized to secondary students. The results of a research conducted on a university scholars may not have generalizability to the college students. A treatment may be effective with one type of student and be ineffective with another

Threats to External Validity (Population)

Selection of Subjects
Generalization is limited to the subjects in the sample if subjects are not selected randomly from an identified population

Characteristics of Subjects
Generalization is limited to the population having the same characteristics of the sample used in the study i.e. socioeconomic status, age, location, ability, race, etc.

Subject-treatment interaction
Generalization may be limited because of the interaction between the subjects and treatment, i.e. the effect of the treatment is unique to the subjects

Ecological External validity

Refers to the conditions of the research and the extent to which generalization of results is limited to similar conditions
Conditions of research; nature of independent and dependent variables, physical surroundings, time of day or year, pretest or posttest sensitization and effects caused by the presence of an experimenter or treatment
A study shows a change in the morning class and not in an afternoon class; the time of the day is an extraneous variable that could affect the dependent variable, and is confounded (confounding variable) with the effectiveness of the treatment

Hawthorne effect; the tendency of people to act differently simply because they realize they are subjects in research; it can effect both internal and external validity

Threats to External Validity (Ecological)

Description of Variables
Generalization is limited to the operational definitions of the independent and dependent variables

Multiple-treatment interference
Generalizability is limited to similar multiple treatment situations because of the effect of the first treatment on subsequent treatments

Setting-treatment interaction
Generalization is limited to the settings in which the study is conducted; i.e. room, time of day, others present, other surroundings.

Time of measurement- treatment interaction

Results may be limited to the time frame in which they were obtained. Treatments causing immediate effects may not have lasting effects.

Novelty or disruption effect

Subjects may respond differently because of a change in routine, and generalization may be limited to situations that involve similar novelty or disruption e.g. an initially effective treatment may become ineffective in time as novelty wears off

11. Internal Validity of Qualitative Research

Refers to the degree to which the explanations of phenomena match the realities of the world. It addresses the questions;
Do researchers actually observe what they think to observe? Do researchers actually hear the meanings that they think to here?

Internal validity of qualitative research is the degree to which the interpretations and concepts have mutual meanings between the participants and researcher. The claim of high internal validity of qualitative research rests on the data collection and analysis techniques.

Strategies that increase Internal Validity

Lengthy data collection period;
provides opportunity for continual data analysis, comparison and corroboration to refine ideas

Participants Language
Informant interviews, phrased closely to the participants language, are less abstract than many instruments used in other designs

Field research
Participant observation and in-depth interviews reflect reality of life more accurately than laboratory settings

Disciplined subjectivity
Researchers self-monitoring submits all phases of the research process to continuous and rigorous questioning and reevaluation Some researchers write out their potential biases about a topic before they begin the study while some write a memo. The memos alert the researchers when they begin formal data analysis

Threats to internal validity of Qualitative Research

History
Change is constant and a normal process; the research task is to document base-line data of the phenomena under study from the participants perspective and supplementary sources. it becomes a threat when base-line data are not recorded

Maturation
Participants definition of appropriate behaviour in a specific settings

Observer/researcher effects
Occurs when data are claimed to be representative beyond the context (boundary of focus)

Selection
Occurs when purposeful sampling rationale and decision process are omitted in a study

Attrition
Attrition or loss of participants is a normal process; as in a quantitative research, replacement of subjects is not possible here because qualitative research values each person. It becomes a threat when baseline data are not recorded

Alternative explanations
Occurs when researcher did not obtain multiple perspectives of participants

12. External Validity of Qualitative Research

Most qualitative studies use a case study design in which the single case is not treated as a probability sample of the larger universe The researcher does not aim at generalization of results but
the extension of the understandings, detailed descriptions that enable others to understand similar situations and extend these understandings in subsequent research

Knowledge is produced not by replication, but by preponderance of evidence found in separate case studies over times Threats to external validity for a qualitative study are those that limit its usefulness;
Comparability Translatability

Comparability and Translatability

Comparability
Is the degree to which the research design is adequately described so that researchers may use the study to extend the findings to other studies.

Translatability
Is the degree to which the researcher uses theoretical frameworks and research strategies that are understood by other researchers. Lack of comparability or translatability reduces the usefulness of a study to a systematic but idiosyncratic investigation, a limitation to its relevance for future inquiry

Threats to External Validity of a qualitative Research

Selection effects
Becomes problematic when characteristics of group or contextual features of site are omitted i.e. SES, age group, Educational attainment, racial or ethnic composition, time period, etc.

Setting effects
Occurs when data are not corroborated between researcher and participants

History effects
Becomes problematic when common and contrasting dimensions of groups or subcultures are omitted, i.e. degree of literacy & nonliteracy, technological & non-technological society, rural & urban, constitutional & dictatorship government

Theoretical effects
Occurs when findings are not contrasted to the results of prior research; as the major outcome of qualitative research is generation and refinement of concept.