Faculty of Computing Engineering and

Technology

Analogue System And Instrumentations




Lecture 1

Prof. Dr. T.Sadat-Shafai
Introduction to High Frequency
History

Heinrich Hertz generated EM waves at frequencies as high as 450 MHz.

Guglielmo Marconi Worked with radio frequencies as high as 1 GHz.

Need for radar during World war II promoted more research at high
frequency.

Randal and Boot developed radar system in 1940.

Development of high frequency devices such as Gunn diode for microwave
communications.

Integrated circuit is also used for fabrication of microwave devices.

Photonic crystals is also used as high frequency filters as well as optical
integrated circuits.


Frequency designation
C = f where c is the speed of light, f is the frequency and is the wavelength.

Very Low Frequency (VLF) up to 30 kHz, corresponding to wavelengths up 10km.

Low Frequency (LF), 30- 300 kHz, corresponding to 10-1 km wavelengths.

Medium Frequency (MF), 300 kHz-3MHz, corresponding to 1km-100m wavelength.

High Frequency (HF), 3MHz-30MHz, corresponding to 100m-10m wavelengths.

Very High Frequency (VHF), 30MHz- 300 MHz, corresponding to 10m-1m
wavelengths.

Ultra High Frequency (UHF), 300 MHz-3GHz, corresponding to 1m-10cm
wavelengths.

Super High Frequency (SHF), 3GHz-30GHz, corresponding to 10 cm-1cm
wavelengths.

Extremely High Frequency (EHF), 30 GHz-300GHz, corresponding to 1 cm-1 mm
wavelength.

Infra Red (IR), Greater than 300 GHz or less than 1mm Wavelength.
Introductory Circuit Theory
Electric Current: is defined as the rate of change of charge with time


Voltage: is the work done in moving a unit positive charge between two
points in a circuit.

Ohms Law:

where R is the resistance given by
Capacitance:

Capacitance depends on the geometry of the conductor and the permittivity of
the dielectric material.


dt
dq
i =
q
w
v =
iR v =
A
L
R =
dv
dq
C =
dt
dv
C
dt
dq
i = =
Geometrical Capacitance
Parallel plate Capacitor




Two wire transmission line



Coaxial transmission line



























A
q
E
c c
o
= =
A
d q
d E v
ab


c
= =
d
A
v
q
C
ab
c
= =
a d
a
d
l
C >>
|
.
|

\
|
= For
ln
c t
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
b
l
C
ln
2 c t
Inductance: is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux to the current that is
surrounded or linked by that flux


for a time varying current, the voltage due to inductance is given by



Inductance also depends on the geometry of the conductors

For the two wire transmission line: the total inductance is given by



For the coaxial line: the total inductance is given by


i
L
|
=
dt
di
L v =
|
.
|

\
|
=
a
d l
L ln
t

|
.
|

\
|
=
a
b l
L ln
t

AC Circuit of a Transmission Line

This is an equivalent circuit for a transmission line of unit length

Impedance per unit length is given by


Admittance per unit length is given by


Characteristics impedance Z
o
is given by



The propagation constant is given by


where o is the attenuation constant and | is the phase constant in radians.
The propagation constant for the equivalent circuit is given by


L j R Z e + =
C j G Y e + =
C j G
L j R
Y
Z
Z
o
e
e
+
+
= =
| o j + =
( )( ) C j G L j R ZY e e + + = =
Power
Instantaneous Power

If we consider the general case where




Using trigonometric identities





In the above equation the first term is time dependent and the average value is
zero. However the 2
nd
term has a constant magnitude and referred to as
average power.




iv p =
( ) u e = t i i
m
cos
( ) u e e = t t v i p
m m
cos cos
t v v
m
e cos =
) cos( ) cos( cos cos 2 B A B A B A + + =
( ) u u e cos
2
2 cos
2
m m m m
v i
t
v i
p + =
u cos
2
m m
v i
p =
Electromagnetic Field
Vector Force Field
Non contact forces which can exert forces from a distance are called vector force
field. For example Gravitational Field or Electric Field or Magnetic Field.
Electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic field comprises of Electric and Magnetic component which are
orthogonal (Perpendicular).
Both electric and Magnetic field can be Static or time varying.
For propagation both fields vary with time.
Electric and Magnetic Field
Electric Field E at a point in space is defined as the Force F (magnitude and
direction) experienced by a unite positive charge at that point in space.



For magnetic field use

Static Field
Time independent field. The direction of the arrows indicate the direction of field
and the density of arrows indicate the magnitude of the field.
Time dependent Field
Static electric fields can exist in the space between conductors of a transmission
line.
When the lines are used for transmission of energy the electric and magnetic fields
will vary both with time and distance.

q
F
E =
r E
2
1
4 r
q
tc
= r F
2
2 1
4 r
q q
tc
=
r H
r
I
t 2
=
Electromagnetic Wave
Uniform Plane Wave
Uniform Plane wave has a single component of Electric field E and a single
component of Magnetic field H lying in a plane.
The E field and H field components are perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Such a wave is also described as transverse electromagnetic waves or TEM wave.








The E field lies in the x-direction and does not vary with x or y. Similarly, the H field
lies in the y direction and does not vary with x or y. Both field vary sinusoidally with
time.
The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave propagation is provided by Maxwells
equations.



The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave propagation is provided by Maxwells
equations.







Where E is the electric field, D is the electric field displacement, H is the magnetic
field, B is the magnetic flux density J is the current density and is the charge density.

The electric field is related to electric field displacement as


Flux density is related to magnetic field as


Current density is related to electric field by Ohms Law.









(2) J
D
H +
c
c
= V
t
(3) = V D
(1)
dt
dB
E = V
(4) 0 = V B
(5)
0
E D c =
(6)
0
H B =
(7) E J o =
Equations (2) and (3) can be further simplified if assume that there is no charge carriers that is to
say










Taking the curl of the equation (10) and (11) respectively gives





Using Vector operation

According to equation (12)







(10)
0
t c
c
= V
H
E
(8) 0 =
(9) 0 = J
(11)
0
t c
c
= V
E
H c
(12) 0 = V E
( ) ( ) (13)
2
2
0 0 0 0 0
t t t t c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
c
c
= V V
E E
H E c c
( ) ( ) (14)
2
2
0 0 0 0 0
t t t t c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
= V
c
c
= V V
H H
E H c c c
( ) ( ) ( ) (15) E E E V V V V = V V
0 = V E
( ) (16)
2
E E V = V V
Substituting equation (16) into equation (13) gives




Similar operation on magnetic field would yield


For uniform plane wave both electric and magnetic field have single component of E
and H field thus equations 17 and 18 may be rewritten as









The solution of equation 17 for a wave travelling in the z direction can be written in
the form

(17)
2
2
0 0
2
E E
t c
c
= V c
(18)
2
2
0 0
2
H H
t c
c
= V c
(21) s / 10 99792458 . 2
1
8
2
1
0 0
m =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
(19)
2
2
0 0
2
2
t z c
c
=
c
c
x x
E E
c
(20)
2
2
0 0
2
2
t z c
c
=
c
c
y y
H H
c
( ) (22) cos
0
z t E E
x
| e =
An alternative expression for E
x
is given by



In the above expression E
0
is the magnitude of E
x
, e is the angular frequency and | is
given by


Similar expression can be written for H
y
as


Recalling equation 10


Differentiating equation 23 with respect to z and also differentiating equation 24 with
respect to t and substituting in equation 10 gives the relationship between E
x
and H
y
.



Z
i
is the intrinsic impedance for free space. For free space Z
i
= 376.7O. Intrinsic
impedance for dielectric medium is given by





(24)
2

t
c e | = =
( ) (23) exp
0
z t j E
x
| e = E
( ) (25) exp
0
z t j H
y
| e = H
(10)
0
t z c
c
=
c
c
y
x
H
E

(26)
0
0
i
y
x
Z = =
c

H
E
(27)
i
y
x
Z = =
c

H
E
Propagation through lossy material

The wave will attenuate as it travels. For the plane wave travelling in +z direction,



where is the propagation constant and given by



Substituting equation (29) into equation (28) gives



This indicates that the amplitude has decreased by a factor of


o is the attenuation constant and given by


( ) (28) exp
0
z t j E
x
e = E
(29) | o j + =
( ) ( ) (30) exp exp
0
z t j z E
x
| e o = E
) exp( z o
(31)
2
eo
o =
Power density

power density and the direction of energy flow for an electromagnetic wave is
given by the Poynting vector S.




The average Poynting vector is expressed as




For the plane wave the average Poynting vector is given by


( ) (32)
2
1
ave
H E S =
(31) H E S =
(33)
2
1
ave
H E S =
High Frequency Effects
At high frequencies certain effects become significant and must be considered.

Size of components decreases with decreasing wavelength.

As components become smaller, power dissipation and voltage breakdown become
problems.

At high frequency inductive reactance increases.

At high frequency capacitive reactance becomes small.

At high frequency power loss must be considered.

3 primary losses are Ohmic loss, Dielectric loss and Radiation loss.
Ohmic Loss
As the frequency goes up induced voltage increases which opposes the initial current hence
increasing the resistance


According to the above equation it appears as the cross-sectional area is reduced

Thus at high frequency, the current tends to flow near the surface of conductors. T his is called
Skin Effect. The skin depth is defined as the distance from the conductor surface to the point
where the current density has decreased by 1/e of its value at the surface.



f is the frequency, is the permeability, o is the conductivity.
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric materials have small conductivities, and there is very little current flow when an
electric field is applied. At high frequencies, motion of bound charges within the material
constitutes an ac current that causes heating and thus power loss

Radiation Loss
Radiation loss is energy radiated into space.
dt
di
L V =
A
L
R =
o t
o
f
1
=