Mechanical Behavior, Properties and Testing of Materials

Umair Bin Asim

Overview
Mechanical application of material is to keep the things that are supposed to be stationary, stand their ground; Static loading, and the things that are supposed to be moving to move only in the intended fashion, i.e. not more not less; Dynamic loading

Overview
What does standing there ground implies
Bearing the intended (sometime even more) static loads Keep on bearing loads when its value is constantly changing; Fatigue loading Enduring extreme conditions, loads, elevated temperature and extended time periods; Creep Bearing the load even when it was suddenly applied; Impact loading

Overview
Even when the material is subjected to battering in the form of key holes, holes for fasteners, sudden changes in cross sections; Stress concentration And also to face some adverse effects like corrosion

Static Loading
Tension Test Strength Ductility Toughness Elastic Modulus Test Specimen Dog-bone shape ASTM Standard E8 Original Gauge length lo Cross-sectional area Ao

Tension
Stress-strain curves
Linear elastic: elongation in the specimen that is proportional to the applied load. Engineering stress: the ratio of the applied load P, to the original cross-sectional area, Ao, of the specimen.
Engineering stress equation: = P/Ao Engineering strain equation: e = (l-lo)/lo

Tension
Yield Stress: the stress at which permanent (plastic) deformation occurs. Permanent (plastic) deformation: stress and strain are no longer proportional. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS): the maximum engineering stress.

Tension
If the specimen is loaded beyond its UTS it begins to neck. Fracture stress: the engineering stress at fracture.

Tension
Modulus of elasticity: ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region.
Modulus of elasticity equation: E = /e

This linear relationship is known as Hookes Law. Poisons Ratio: the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.

Ductility
Ductility: extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes before fracture. Two measures of ductility:
Total elongation: (lf-lo)/lo x 100% Reduction of Area: (Ao-Af)/Ao x 100%

True-Stress and TrueStrain True-stress: ratio of the load, P, to the instantaneous cross-sectional area, A, of the specimen. True-strain: the sum of all the instantaneous engineering strains.
True-stress equation: = P/A True-strain equation: e = ln(l/lo)

Construction of StressStrain Curves

Temperature Effects
As temperature increases:
Ductility and toughness increase. Yield stress and the modulus of elasticity decrease.

Other Stress-Strain Characteristics

Compression, Torsion, and Bending Hardness, Toughness, and Strength

Compression Test
Simplistically, compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing Load tends to squeeze or compact the specimen Metals and many plastics, are more efficient at resisting tensile loads. Therefore, they are more commonly tested using tensile loading

Disk Test
The cylindrical specimens surface begins to bulge, known as barreling. Compression test developed for brittle materials such as ceramics and glass. Tensile stress from this test can be calculated with the following equation: = 2P/dt P is load at fracture, d is diameter of disk, t is thickness.

Torsion Test
In addition to tension and compression, a work-piece may be subjected to shear strains. Punching holes in sheet metal.
Metal cutting.

Torsion test used for determination of properties in shear. Usually performed on a thin tubular specimen. Shear stress can be calculated with formula: T/2r2t
T is torque, r is average radius of tube, t is thickness of tube.

Shear strain is calculated with formula: r/l

r is radius of tube, is angle of twist in radians, and l is length of tube.

Torsion Test
The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain in the elastic range is known as the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. The angle of twist, , to fracture in the torsion of solid round bars and elevated temp can help estimate forge-ability of metals.

Bending
Preparing specimens from brittle materials, such as ceramics and carbides, is difficult because of problems in shaping and machining them to certain dimensions. The most common test for brittle materials is the bend or flexure test.

Bend / Flexure Test

Rectangular specimen supported at its ends. Load is applied vertically at 1 or 2 pts. The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus of rupture, flexural strength, or transverse rupture strength.

Hardness
Commonly used property which gives indication of resistance to scratch and wear of a material/specimen. Widely used
Relatively inexpensive and simple Non-destructive Other mechanical properties can be estimated

Hardness is not a fundamental property because indentation depends on shape of indenter and load applied.

Brinell Test
J. A. Brinell 1900 Involves pressing a steel or carbide ball of 10mm against a surface with various loads.
500, 1500, or 3000 kg

Measures diameter of indentation. Harder surfaces have small indentation while softer surfaces have larger indentation.

Rockwell Test
S. P. Rockwell 1922 Test measures depth rather than diameter of indentation. Diamond indenter presses against surface with minor load and then major load.
The difference in depths of penetration is a measure of the hardness of material.

Vickers Test
Developed in 1922. Comparable to Brinell Test except using a pyramid shaped diamond to make indentation. Lighter loads than Brinell Test
From 1 to 120 kg

Knoop Test
Developed in 1939. Comparable to Brinell and Vickers test. Uses an elongated pyramid shaped diamond to make indentations. Uses very light loads.
From 25 g to 5 kg.

Known as a micro-hardness test because of the lights loads.

Suitable for very small or very thin specimens.

Test also used for measuring the hardness of individual grains and components in a metal alloy.

Fatigue
Fatigue Components in manufacturing equipment are subjected to fluctuating cyclic (periodic) loads and static loads. Cyclic Stress on wings, landing gears Thermal Stress -- exhaust nozzle
Both stresses may cause part failure at stress levels below normal static stress loading

Fatigue
Fatigue Failure -- Failure associated with every stress cycle, propagated through the material until critical crack is reached and material fractures. Fatigue Testing -Various stresses, tension then bending to a maximum load limit (total failure.)

Fatigue
S-N Curves
Stress Amplitude (S) -Maximum stress specimen is subjected Number of Cycles (N)
Level of stress a material tolerates decreases with an increase in cycles.

Fatigue
Endurance (Fatigue Limit) -- Maximum stress material may be subjected without fatigue failure.
Aluminum Alloys and similar materials exhibit an indefinite endurance limit. Fatigue strength is specified at a certain number of cycles (10^7.) Carbon Steels have a proportional endurance limit and tensile strength, usually 0.4 to 0.5.

Fatigue
Improving Fatigue Strength -- Fatigue life is influenced greatly by the method of preparation to the surfaces of the part or specimen.
Fatigue Strength of manufactured products may be improved overall by Inducing compressive residual stresses on surfaces
Shot Peening or Roller Burnishing

Case hardening (surface hardening) by various means

Fatigue
Fatigue Strength of manufactured products may be improved overall by
Providing a fine surface finish and thereby reducing the effects of notches and other surface imperfections. Selecting appropriate materials and ensuring that they are free from significant amounts of inclusions, voids, and impurities.

Creep
Permanent elongation of a component under a static load maintained for a period of time. Grain-Boundary Sliding -- Mechanism of creep at an elevated temperature in metals.
In high-temperature applications, gas-turbine blades, jet engines, and rocket motors.

Creep
Creep Testing -Subjecting a specimen to a constant tensile load (engineering stress) at a certain temperature, measuring the length changes at various time increments.
Primary, secondary, and tertiary stages

Creep
Rupture (Creep Rupture) -- Failure by necking and fractures
Creep rate increases with specimen temperature and the applied load. Secondary Linear ranges and slopes aid to determine reliable design. A higher melting point generally is related to an increase in creep resistance.
Stainless Steels, Super-alloys and Refractory metals and alloys

Impact
Testing consists of placing a notched specimen in an impact tester and breaking it with a swinging pendulum.
Impact or Dynamic Loading

CharpyTest -- Specimen supported at both ends. Izod Test -- Specimen supported at one end.

Impact
Impact Toughness -- The energy dissipated in breaking the specimen may be obtained from the amount of swing in the pendulum.
Useful in determining the ductile-brittle transition temperature of materials.
High Impact Resistance High Strength High Ductility High Toughness

Impact
Notch Sensitivity -Sensitivities to surface defects, lowers impact toughness.

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Discontinuity

Discontinuity

Stepped shafts
Mechanical & Aerospace Engr., SJSU

Discontinuity in Cross Section

High stress

Bracket with screw holes

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Infrared analysis reveals the points of greatest stress on a Renault parts surface caused by weld points and helps estimate fatigue limits for those critical areas (bottom).

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Discontinuity

Bolt failure at the junction of the thread and solid section. Location of higher stresses.

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Maximum stress at the discontinuity

Nominal stress, max stress with no discontinuity

Kt is used for normal stresses and Kts for shear stresses.

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Stress concentration factor is found using experimental methods.

Photoelasticity a plane polarized light is passed thru a

photelastic material (all transparent plastics) resulting in a colorful fringe pattern indicating the intensity of the stress.

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Brittle Coating a specially
prepared lacquers are usually applied by spraying on the actual part. After air drying, the part is subjected to stress. A pattern of small cracks appear on the surface. Data could be used to locate strain gages for precise measurement of the stress. The method is sensitive to temperature and humidity.

Discontinuity in Cross Section

The CAD model is subdivided into many small pieces of simple

shapes called elements.

FEA program writes the equations governing the behavior of each

element taking into consideration its connectivity to other elements.

These equations relate the unknowns, for example displacements in

stress analysis, to known material properties, restraints and loads.

The program assembles the

equations into a large set of simultaneous algebraic equations (thousands or even millions).
These equations are then

solved by the program to obtain the stress distribution for the entire model.

Stress Concentration Factor

Round shafts in axial Tension

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Round section with a fillet

Bending

Torsion

Discontinuity in Cross Section

Flat plate in Tension with a hole

Flat plate in Bending with a hole

Ken Youssefi Mechanical & Aerospace Engr., SJSU

Failure and Fracture of Material Failure -- One of the most important aspects of material behavior. It directly influences the selection of a material for a particular application, the methods of manufacturing, and the service life of the component.

Failure and Fracture of Material

In selecting and processing materials
Fracture -- Either internal or external. Sub-classified into Ductile or Brittle. Ductile materials - extensive plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) before fracture Brittle materials - little plastic deformation and low energy absorption before fracture

Failure and Fracture of Materials Ductile Fracture -- Plastic deformation proceeds failure.
Highly ductile materials neck down to a point before failing. Most metals and alloys will neck down to a finite area and then fail. Generally ductile fractures take place along planes which shear stress is a maximum.

Failure and Fracture in Materials Ductile Fracture -- Plastic deformation proceeds failure.
Close examination of ductile fracture surface shows a fibrous pattern with dimples.
Failure is initiated with formation of tiny voids which grow and coalesce, developing micro-cracks leading to fracture.

In tension-test, fracture begins at the center of the necked region as a result of the growth and coalescences of cavities.

Failure and Fracture in Material

Cup-and-Cone Fracture -- Due to appearance, the fracture surface of a tension-test specimen.

Failure and Fracture in Material

Crack propagation is fast Propagates nearly perpendicular to direction of applied stress Often propagates by cleavage - breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes No appreciable deformation plastic

Brittle fracture in a mild steel

Failure and Fracture in Material

Defects -- Scratches, flaws, and pre-existing external or internal cracks.
The high tensile stresses subject the tip of the crack to propagate the crack rapidly due to the materials inability to dissipate energy. Catastrophic failure occurs under tensile stresses when compared to their strength in compression.

Failure and Fracture in Material

Fatigue Failure -- Minute external or internal cracks develop at pre-existing flaws or defects in the material. The cracks propagate over a period of time and leads to total and sudden failure of the part.

Failure and Fatigue in Material

Beach Marks -- Term given the fracture surface in fatigue. Striations -- On the fracture surface, several appearing on each beach mark.

Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion
Typically used to describe metal or ceramic deterioration Similar phenomena occur in plastics Often referred to as degradation

Corrosion Resistance
Types of corrosion
Pitting Intergranular Crevice Galvanic cell Stress-corrosion cracking Selective Leaching Oxidation Passivation

Corrosion Resistance
Pitting
Can occur over the entire surface or be localized

Intergranular
Occurs along grain boundaries

Corrosion Resistance
Crevice
Occurs at the interface of bolted or riveted joints

Galvanic cell
Occurs between dissimilar metals when an electrolyte is present Not as common in pure metals or single-phase alloys

Corrosion Resistance
Stress-corrosion cracking
Cold worked metals are most susceptible

Selective leaching
Occurs when metalworking fluid attacks specific elements in tool and die materials

Corrosion Resistance
Oxidation
A chemical reaction which leaves a small layer of oxidized material on the surface Resists further corrosion
Aluminum & Titanium

Passivation
The development of a protective film by chemical reaction
Stainless Steel

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