• For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the path
Streamlines
• For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the path
• The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called
streamlines.
Streamlines
• For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its velocity vector is
everywhere tangent to the path
• The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called
streamlines.
• We will use coordinates based on streamlines
Particle Motion
• Particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t), along streamline, and
local radius of curvature
Particle Motion
• Particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t), along streamline, and
local radius of curvature
• Distance s is related to particle’s speed V = ds/dt, and radius of curvature is related
to the shape of streamline
Particle Acceleration
• Acceleration: a d V dt
Particle Acceleration
• Acceleration: a d V dt
V V2
as V , an
s
Forces
Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
F = ma along a Streamline
p V
Equation of motion along streamline (details sin V as
) s s
Change in fluid particle speed is accomplished
by combination of pressure gradient and particle
weight along streamline
Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
Example 3.1 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal
streamline A–B in front of the sphere of radius a. From a more advanced theory of flow
past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
a3
V V0 1 3
x
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the
sphere (xA = – ∞ and VA = V0) to point B on the sphere (xB = – a and VB = 0).
Example 3.1 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal
streamline A–B in front of the sphere of radius a. From a more advanced theory of flow
past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
a3
V V0 1 3
x
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the
sphere (xA = – ∞ and VA = V0) to point B on the sphere (xB = – a and VB = 0).
Acceleration
V V 2 a3 a3
V V 3V0 1 3 4
s x x x
Example 3.1 Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal
streamline A–B in front of the sphere of radius a. From a more advanced theory of flow
past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
a3
V V0 1 3
x
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the
sphere (xA = – ∞ and VA = V0) to point B on the sphere (xB = – a and VB = 0).
3 2
p 3 a V0 1 a x
3 3
x x4
Pressure distribution
a 3 a x6
p V02
x 2
V02
pB
2
Bernoulli Equation
For incompressible fluid equation of motion along streamline reduces to Bernoulli equation
(details)
1
p V 2 z constant along streamline
2
Restricted to:
- inviscid flow
- steady flow
- incompressible flow
- along streamline
Example 3.2 Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with
velocity V0. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
Example 3.2 Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with
velocity V0. Determine the difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
1 1
p1 V12 z1 p2 V22 z2
2 2
Pressure difference
1 1
p2 p1 V12 V02
2 2
F = ma Normal to a Streamline
dz p V 2
Equation of motion along the normal direction (details)
dn n
Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
Example 3.3 Shown in Fig. a, b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The
velocity distributions are
V r C1r for case (a)
C2
V r for case (b)
r
where C1 and C2 are constant. Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each,
given that p = p0 at r = r0.
Example 3.3 Shown in Fig. a, b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The
velocity distributions are
V r C1r for case (a)
C2
V r for case (b)
r
where C1 and C2 are constant. Determine the pressure distributions, p = p(r), for each,
given that p = p0 at r = r0.
Solution
p 1
r
C12 r and p
2
C12 r 2 r02 p0
p C22 1 2 1 1
3 and p C2 2 2 p0
r r 2 r0 r
V2
p dn z constant across streamline
Restricted to:
- inviscid flow
- steady flow
- incompressible flow
- across streamline
1
p V 2 z constant along streamline
2
Work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to the change of the
kinetic energy of the particle
Each term of Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as:
- head (elevation, pressure, velocity)
- form of pressure (static, hydrostatic, dynamic)
Example 3.4
Pressure variation across straight streamlines is hydrostatic
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
Useful concept associated with the Bernoulli equation deals with the stagnation and
dynamic pressures.
As fluid is brought to rest its kinetic energy is converted to a pressure rise
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
1
p2 p1 V12
2
• There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed onto a flowing
fluid
• Some of the fluid flows “over” and some “under” the object. Dividing line is
termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation point on the body
• Sum of the static pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and dynamic pressure is termed the
total pressure, pT
1
p V 2 z pT constant along streamline
2
Fluid Velocity Measurement
2 p3 p4
V
Pitot-static tube
Typical Pitot-Static Tube Designs
Measurement of Static Pressure
If 0 and 29.5o
p1 p3 p
V 2
p2 p
2
2 p2 p1
V
Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure
Velocity: V 2 gh
If exit is not smooth, diameter of the jet will be less than diameter of the hole.
This phenomena, called a vena contracta effect, is a result of the inability of the fluid to
turn the sharp 90º corner indicated by dotted lines in the figure
Since streamlines in the exit plane are curved, the pressure across them is not constant.
The highest pressure occurs along the centerline at (2), and lowest pressure, p1 = p3 = 0
Assumption of uniform velocity with straight streamlines and constant pressure is not
valid at the exit plane
It is valid in the plane of vena contracta, sectшon a-a, provided dj « h
Cc Aj Ah
In nozzles and pipes of variable diameter velocity changes from one section to another
For such cases continuity equation must be used along with Bernoulli equation
Continuity equation states that mass cannot be created or destroyed
For incompressible fluid (details)
1 1 A2V2
AV or Q1 Q2
Example 3.7 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m
flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1.0 m.
Determine the flowrate, Q , needed from the inflow pipe
if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0 m
Example 3.7 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m
flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1.0 m.
Determine the flowrate, Q , needed from the inflow pipe
if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0 m
Solution
Assume steady, inviscid, incompressible flow.
Apply Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2)
1 1
p1 V12 z1 p2 V22 z2
2 2
1 2 1
With p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = h and z2 = 0 V1 gh V22
2 2
2
d
From continuity equation V1 V2
D
2 gh
Exit velocity V2 6.26 m/s
1 d D
4
Solution
If D » d, then we can assume V1 ≈ 0. Error associated
with this assumption:
2 gh 1 d D
4
Q V2 1
Q0 V2 D 2 gh 1 d D
4
Example 3.8
Example 3.8
2 p1
Answers: V3 69.0 m/s V2 =7.67 m/s
Q 0.00542 m3 / s p2 2963 N/m 2
Q 1 A2 A1
2 2
Answer: h
2 2 g 1 SG
A
Comments:
For a given flowrate h does not depend
on θ, but pressure difference, p1 – p2, as
measured by pressure gage, does
Cavitation
Answer: H 28.2 ft
Comments: Results are independent of diameter and length of the hose (provided viscous
effects are not important
Proper design of hose is needed to ensure that it will not collapse due to the large pressure
difference (vacuum) between the inside and outsides of the hose
Flowrate Measurement
2 p1 p2
Q A2
1 A2 A1
2
Comments:
These values represent “ideal” results, and these results are independent of flow meter
geometry – an orifice, nozzle, or Venturi meter.
2 g z1 z2
Q z2b
1 z2 z1
2
Q z2b 2 gz1
Q C1 Hb 2 gH C1b 2 g H 3 2
Representation of the
energy line and the
hydraulic grade line
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
If the flow is steady, incompressible, and inviscid, the energy line is horizontal and at the
elevation of the liquid in the tank.
Hydraulic grade line lies a distance of one velocity head below the energy line
At the pipe outlet the pressure head is zero (gage) so the pipe elevation and hydraulic
grade line coincide
Restrictions on use for the Bernoulli equation are imposed by the assumptions used in its
derivation.
To avoid incorrect use of Bernoulli equation one must take into account:
- Compressibility effects;
- Unsteady effects;
- Rotational effects;
- Viscosity effects;
- Presence of mechanical devices (pumps, turbines)
“Change of scene, and absence of the necessity for thought,
will restore the mental equilibrium”
(Jerom K. Jerom, “Three Men In a Boat”)
END OF CHAPTER
Supplementary slides
F = ma along a Streamline
V V
Newton’s second law along streamline Fs mas mV s
V V
s
F = ma along a Streamline
back
Bernoulli Equation
p V
Consider equation sin V (a)
s s
dz
Along streamline sin
ds
V
V 1 d V
2
Also
s 2 ds
back
Continuity Equation
Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume. If the flow is steady, rate at which fluid
flows into the volume must equal the rate at which it flows out of the volume (mass is
conserved)
Mass flow rate is given by m& Q
Volume flow rate Q VA
back
Compressibility Effects
V12 RT p1 V22
z1 ln z2
2g g p2 2 g
Use of above equation is restricted by inviscid flow assumptions, since most isothermal
flows are accompanied by viscous effects.
For compressible, isentropic (no friction or heat transfer), steady flow of a perfect gas:
k p1 V12 k p2 V2
2
gz1 gz2
k 1
1 2 k 1
2 2
Compressibility Effects
Bernoulli equation for compressible flow can be written for pressure ratio as
k
p2 p1 k 1 k 1
1 Ma12 1
p1 2
V12 s2 V V22
p1 z1 ds p2 z2
2 s1 t 2
Use of this equation requires knowledge of variation of ∂V/∂t along the streamline
back
Example 3.12
Q
Answers: 4.83 m 2 /s
b
Comments: ?
Example 3.13
Answers: Q AV H 2 tan
2
C2 2 gh C2 tan
2
2 ghH 5 2
C2 tan 2 2 g 3H 0
52
Q3 H 0
C2 tan 2 2 g H 0
52
QH 0
Comments: ?
Example 3.14
Answers:
Comments: ?
Example 3.16
2g
Answers:
l
Comments: ?
Example 3.17
V12
Answers: p2 h 518 kPa
2
Comments: ?
Example 3.18