Radio Broadcasting System

Transmitter

Receiver

1 What are the features of AM Radio Broadcasting ?

Different audio sources have different bandwidths W

AM radio limits baseband bandwidth W to 5kHz

FM radio uses baseband bandwidth W to 15kHz AM Radio Spectrum

Draw a block diagram of a AM receiver and explain its operation

Receiver Block Diagram

RF Antenna Amplifier IF Mixer IF Amplifier

Audio Amplifier Speaker

Envelope Detector

1 Antenna
The antenna captures electromagnetic energyits output is a small voltage or current. In the frequency domain, the antenna output is

Undesired Signals

Desired Signal

Carrier Frequency of desired station

frequency

The signal from the antenna is usually very weak. Amplification is, therefore, necessary.

2 RF Amplifier
RF stands for radio frequency. RF Amplifier amplifies small signals from the antenna to voltage levels appropriate for transistor circuits. RF Amplifier also performs a bandpass filter operation on the signal Bandpass filter attenuates the frequency components outside the frequency band containing the desired station

RF Amplifier-Frequency Domain
Frequencies outside the desired frequency band are attenuated Frequency domain representation of the output:

Undesired Signals

Desired Signal

Carrier Frequency of desired station

frequency

3 IF Mixer
The IF Mixer shifts its input in the frequency domain from the carrier frequency to an intermediate frequency of 455kHz:
Desired Signal Undesired Signals

455 kHz

frequency

4 IF Amplifier
The IF amplifier bandpass filters the output of the IF Mixer, eliminating essentially all of the undesired signals.
Desired Signal

455 kHz

frequency

5 Envelope Detector
Computes the envelope of its input signal
Input Signal

Output Signal

6 Audio Amplifier
Amplifies signal from envelope detector Provides power to drive the speaker

Draw a block diagram of a AM superherodyne receiver and explain its operation.

Superhetrodyne receiver is the type used in most modern radio and TV receivers. This receiver was designed by Armstrong

The first stage is a standard RF amplifier. The next stage is the mixer, which accepts two inputs, the output of the RF amplifier and a steady sine wave

from the local oscillator (LO).

The function of the mixer is to mix the AM signal with a sine wave to generate a new set of sum and difference

frequencies. It can be shown that the mixer output is an

AM signal with a constant carrier frequency regardless of the transmitter frequency.

The next stage is the intermediate-frequency (IF)

amplifier, which provides signal amplification at a fixed frequency.

Following

the

IF

amplifier

stage

is

the

envelope

detector, which extracts the message signal from the

intermediate radio frequency signal.

A DC level proportional to the received signal's strength is extracted from the detector stage and fed back to

the IF amplifiers and sometimes to the mixer and/or

the RF amplifier. This is the Automatic Gain Control (AGC) level, which allows relatively constant receiver

output for widely variable received signals.

Output of the detector is amplified by audio amplifiers

to drive the speaker.

Frequency Conversion
Mixer process. performs a frequency translation/conversion

Consider a 1000-kHz carrier that has been modulated by a

1-kHz sine wave (AM signal into the mixer), thus producing
side frequencies at 999 kHz and 1001 kHz. Suppose that the LO input is a 1455-kHz sine wave. mixer, being a nonlinear device, will generate the following components: Frequencies at all of the original inputs: 999 kHz, 1000 kHz, 1001 kHz, and 1455 kHz. Sum and difference components of all the original inputs: 1455 kHz (999 kHz, 1000 kHz, and 1001 kHz). This means outputs at 2454 kHz, 2455 kHz, 2456 kHz, 454 kHz, 455 kHz, and 456 kHz. Harmonics of all the frequency components listed in 1 and 2 and a dc component.

The IF amplifier has a tuned circuit that only accepts components near 455 kHz, in this case 454 kHz, 455 kHz, and 456 kHz.

Since the mixer maintains the same amplitude proportion

that existed with the original AM signal input at 999

kHz, 1000 kHz, and 1001 kHz, the signal now passing through the IF amplifiers is a replica of the original AM signal.

The only difference is that now its carrier frequency is 455 kHz. Its envelope is identical to that of the original AM signal. A frequency conversion or translation has occurred that has translated the carrier from 1000

kHz to 455 kHz

A frequency intermediate to the original carrier and intelligence frequencies-which led to the terminology "intermediate frequency amplifier," or IF amplifier.

Tuned-Circuit Adjustment
Now consider the effect of changing the tuned circuit at the front end of the mixer to accept a station at

1600 kHz.

This means a reduction in either its

inductance or capacitance (usually the latter) to change its center frequency from 1000 kHz to 1600 kHz. The capacitance in the local oscillator's tuned circuit is simultaneously reduced so that its frequency of oscillation goes up by 600 kHz.

The mixer's output still contains a component at 455

kHz (among others), as in the previous case when we

were tuned to a 1000-kHz station.

Of course, the

other frequency components at the output of the mixer are not accepted by the frequency selective circuits in

the IF amplifiers.
Thus, the key to superheterodyne operation is to make

the LO frequency "track" with the circuit or circuits

that are tuning the incoming radio signal such that their difference is a constant frequency (the IF).

For a 455-kHz IF frequency, the most common case for broadcast AM receivers, this means the LO should always be at a frequency 455 kHz ABOVE the incoming carrier frequency.

The receiver's "front-end" tuned circuits are usually made to track together by mechanically linking (ganging) the capacitors in these circuits on a common variable rotor assembly.

Image Frequency
Example: Incoming carrier frequency 1000 kHz, Local oscillator = 1000+455=1455 kHz Consider another carrier at 1910 kHz If this is passed through the same oscillator, will have a 19101455=455 kHz component Therefore, both carriers will be passed through IF amplifie RF filter should be designed to eliminate image signals The frequency difference between a carrier and its image signal is: 2 fIF

RF filter doesnt have to be selective for adjacent stations, have to be selective for image signals Therefore, T RF IF

B B 2f

Example 2 Question:

Determine the image frequency for a standard

broadcast band receiver using a 455-kHz IF and tuned to a station at 620 kHz. The first step is to determine the frequency of the LO The LO frequency minus the desired station's frequency of 620 kHz should equal the IF of 455 kHz.

Hence, fLO - 620 kHz = 455 kHz fLO = 620 kHz + 455 kHz fLO = 1075 kHz. Now determine what other frequency, when mixed with 1075 kHz, yields an output component at 455 kHz. X - 1075 kHz = 455 kHz X = 1075 kHz + 455 kHz Thus, 1530 kHz is the image frequency in this situation.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

The AGC help to maintain a constant output voltage level over a wide range of RF input signal levels. Tuning the receiver would be a nightmare. So as to not miss the weak stations, you would have the volume control (in the non-AGC set) turned way up. As you tune into a strong station, you would probably blow out your speaker while a weak station may not be audible. The received signal from the tuned station is constantly changing as a result of changing weather and atmospheric conditions. The AGC

allows you to listen to a station without adjusting the volume control.

Compare AM radio broadcasting with FM Broadcasting

FM radio stations have better quality sound than AM radio stations. Reasons 1 Noise immunity introduced by the non-linear modulation. 2 Bandwidth of FM stations are 15kHz, whereas AM stations are only 5kHz.

FM receivers can have aerials (antennas) which are half the wavelength of the transmitted carrier (due to the higher frequency of operation). This allows more signal power to be received than the AM.

FM Transmitter

FM signal in Time Domain

FM Radio
The FM band extends from 88 to 108 MHz. The maximum information frequency fm is specified as 15 kHz. (high fidelity) The minimum bandwidth is to be at least 200 kHz (0.2 MHz). Therefore, carrier frequencies are separated by 200 kHz.

5 Explain the operation of the FM Superheterodyne Receiver.

The FM Superheterodyne Receiver has many similarities to that of

the AM Superheterodyne receiver.

The only apparent differences are the use of the presence of

Limiter-discriminator circuit in place of envelope detector

and the addition of a de-emphasis network

RF stage, mixer, local oscillator, and IF amplifiers are basically similar to those discussed for AM receivers and do not require further elaboration.

The universally standard IF frequency for FM is 10.7 MHz, as

compared to 455 kHz for AM.

A limiter is a circuit whose output is a constant amplitude for all inputs above a critical value. Its function in a FM receiver is to remove any unwanted amplitude variations due to noise.

AGC
In addition to the limiting function also provides AGC action, since signals from the critical minimum value up to some maximum value

provide a constant input level to the detector.

FM discriminator
The FM discriminator (detector) extracts the intelligence that has been modulated onto the carrier via frequency variations. It should provide an intelligence signal whose amplitude is dependent on instantaneous carrier frequency deviation. the response is linear in the allowed area of frequency deviation and that the output amplitude is directly proportional to carrier frequency deviation.

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis.

Despite the fact that FM has superior noise rejection qualities, noise still interferes with an FM signal. This is particularly true for the high-frequency components in the modulating signal. These high frequencies can at times be larger in amplitude than the

high-frequency content of the modulating signal. This causes a form

of frequency distortion that can make the signal unintelligible. To overcome this problem Most FM system use a technique known as Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis.

At the transmitter the modulating signal is passing through a simple

network which amplifies the high frequency component more the low-frequency component.

The simplest form of such circuit is a simple high pass filter.

To return the frequency response to its normal level, a de-emphasis

circuit is used at the receiver.

This is a simple low-pass filter The de-emphasis circuit provides a normal frequency response. The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase the high-frequency components during the transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.

This improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

6 Briefly explain the operation of a FM Stereo Broadcasting system

All new FM broadcast receivers are being built with provision for receiving stereo, or two-channel broadcasts.

The left (L) and right (R) channel signals from the program
material are combined to form two different signals, one of

which is the left-plus-right signal and one of which is the

left-minus-right signal

 An ordinary mono signal consists of the summation of the two channels, i.e. L + R.

If a signal containing the difference between the left and right channels ( L - R) is transmitted then it is possible to

reconstitute the left (L) and right (R) signals.

Adding (L + R) + (L - R) gives 2L i.e. left signal and subtracting (L + R) - (L - R) gives 2R, i.e. the right signal.

The (L - R) signal is double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC) modulated about a carrier frequency of 38 kHz,

with the LSB in the 23 to 38 kHz slot and the USB in the
38 to 53kHz slot.

The (L + R) signal is placed directly in the 0 to 15 kHz slot, and a pilot carrier at 19 kHz is added to synchronize the

demodulator at the receiver.

FM Stereo Transmitter

FM Stereo Receiver

The output from the FM detector is a composite audio

signal containing the frequency-multiplexed (L + R) and (L -

R) signals and the 19-kHz pilot tone. This composite signal

is applied directly to the input of the decoding matrix. The composite audio signal is also applied to one input of a phase-error detector circuit, which is part of a phase locked loop 38-kHz oscillator.

The output drives the 38-kHz voltage-controlled oscillator,

whose output provides the synchronous carrier for the

demodulator. The oscillator output is also frequency divided by 2 (in a counter circuit) and applied to the other input of the phase comparator to close the phase locked loop.

The phase-error signal is also passed to a Schmitt trigger

circuit, which drives an indicator lamp on the panel that

lights when the error signal goes to zero, indicating the

presence of a synchronizing input signal (the 19-kHz pilot tone).

The outputs from the 38-kHz oscillator and the filtered

composite audio signals are applied to the balanced

demodulator, whose output is the (L - R) channel. The (L + R) and (L - R) signals are passed through a matrix circuit that separates the L and R signals from each other. These are passed through de-emphasis networks and lowpass filters to remove unwanted high-frequency components and are then passed to the two channel audio

amplifiers and speakers.

On reception of a monaural signal, the pilot-tone indicator circuit goes off, indicating the absence of pilot tone, and closes the switch to disable the (L - R) input to the matrix. The (L + R) signal is passed through the matrix to both outputs. An ordinary monaural receiver tuned to a stereo signal would produce only the (L + R) signal, since all frequencies above 15 kHz are removed by filtering, and no demodulator circuitry is present. Thus the stereo signal is compatible with the monaural receivers.