Design of Hydraulic Structures

Sem -VIII

Syllabus
Unit-I
Elements of Dam Engineering: Introductory

perspectives, Embankment types and CharacteristicsConcrete dams and characteristics- Spillways and ancillary works site assessment and selection of type of dam.

Elements of Dam Engineering

Introduction
A dam is an impervious barrier constructed across a river or stream to store water on its a upstream side. The side of barrier on which water is stored is called upstream side and the other side of the barrier is called downstream side.

Purpose of Dam
Dam is generally most suitable in hilly area where deep valleys are available which gives a deep storage of water. The stored water on its upstream side serves various purpose such as: Flood Mitigation Irrigation Water Supply Navigation Fishery and wild life Preservation Hydro-electric Power Generation Recreation

Flood Control

Irrigation

Water Supply

Hydro Electric Power Generation

Fisheries

Classification of Dams
Classification as per function and use Storage dam This is the most common type of dam normally constructed to store excess flood water which can be utilized later when demand exceeds the flow in river. The Storage dams may be constructed for various purposes such as irrigation, water supply, hydro-power generation etc. they may be made of concrete, stone or earth or rock fill etc.

Storage Dam

Classification of Dams
Detention Dams This type of dams are mainly constructed to control flood. This type of dam stores water temporarily and releases it gradually at a safe rate when the flood recedes. Detention dam provides safeguard against possible damage due to flood on the downstream side of it. Sometimes a detention dam may also be used as storage dam.

Detention Dams

Classification of Dams
Diversion Dam
The purpose of diversion dam is necessarily different. It is constructed to divert the river water into canal, conduit etc. For this purpose, mostly a weir or low level dam is constructed across the river to raise the water level which can be diverted as per the needs. This type of dam may be used for water supply, irrigation or some other purposes.

Diversion Dam

Classification of Dams
Classification as per hydraulic design Overflow Dam: An overflow dam is built to allow the overflow of surplus discharge above the top of it. They are generally built of masonry or concrete and they are gravity type of dam. Usually dams are not designed as overflow for their entire length. Only few meters of its length is kept as overflow section.

Overflow Dam

Classification of Dams
Non-Overflow Dam:
In this type of dam, water is not allowed to overtop the dam. The top of the dam is fixed at a higher elevation than the expected maximum flood level. Since water is not allowed to overtop, it can be constructed of large variety of materials such as earth, rock fill, masonry, concrete etc.

Non-Overflow Dam

Classification as per Structural Design

Gravity Dam: It is a solid concrete or masonry dam that all external forces are resisted by its own weight or gravity forces. Arch Dam: An arch dam is curved masonry or concrete dam which has convex portion facing upstream. It resists major portion of water pressure by arch action. The self weight of the dam is comparatively lesser than gravity dam.

Gravity Dam & Arch Dam

Classification as per Structural Design

Buttress Dam: It consists of sloping membrane or deck on upstream which is supported by number of buttress or piers. These buttress are constructed of reinforcements concrete and supported by struts or bracings.

Buttress Dam

Classification as per Structural Design

Embankment Dams
They are constructed of locally available soils, gravels and sands, which resists all external forces by it shear strength. These types of dams are more suitable up to moderate height. They are generally trapezoidal in section. Earth dam, earth and rock fill dam are the example of this type of dam.

Embankment Dams

Classification as per material of construction

Rigid Dams These dams are built of rigid materials such as masonry, concrete, steel or timber. In earlier times dams were mostly built of stone masonry which have been replaced now-adays by concrete. Non-Rigid Dams These dams are built of non-rigid materials such as earth, rock fill etc. Earth Dam, Rock fill Dam etc are the examples of this type.

Rigid Dams & Non-Rigid Dams

Embankment Dams
They are the most ancient type of dams that can be build by naturally available materials with minimum of processing. These dams are not suited for sites where good foundations is not available at a reasonable depth for concrete or masonry dam to construct.

Earth Dam:
Earth dams are made of locally available soils, sands and gravel with trapezoidal in section. They are economical and suitable for almost all type of available foundation.

Embankment Dams

Earth Dam
Homogeneous Type This type of dam is constructed of a single kind of materials with stone pitching at upstream side to safeguard against erosion. Also have a rock toe at downstream to drain out the seepage water through the body of the dam.

Earth Dam
Zoned Type
The zoned type of dam consists of more than one kind of material. I consists of a central impervious core made of clay and outer pervious zone made of mixtures of earth and gravel. It also has rock toe at downstream side and stone pitching on upstream side.

Earth Dam
Diaphragm Type: This type of section is used when impervious material is available in lesser quantity at site. It consists of thin impervious core of diaphragm made of clay, cement concrete or bituminous concrete which is surrounded by earth or rock fill. They are also called sometimes as thin core dams. The construction of this type of dam is limited to small dams only. It has upstream stone pitching and downstream stone blanket.

Earth Dam

Characteristics of Earth Dam

They are normally constructed when huge quantity of material e.g. soils, gravels are available locally. They are suitable for almost all type of available foundation. They resist all external forces acting mainly by shear strength of soil. They can be built rapidly with relatively unskilled labour because they use locally available material in large quantity. They are comparatively cheaper than concrete and arch dam. They allow easy increase in their height if needed, without much difficulties.

Characteristics of Earth Dam

They require a separate spillway away from the main dam. They require heavy maintenance cost and constant supervision They are more susceptible to be damaged by floods than any other type of dam.

Rock fill Dam

It is the type of embankment dam which uses various sizes of materials to provide stability. It also has impervious membrane on upstream face to provide water tightness. Impervious membrane is usually made of concrete. Rock fill dam is preferred when plenty of rocks are available from nearby quarry. Rock fill dams require foundation which will result in a minimum settlement. The foundation should be free from all foreign materials like silt, clay, sand etc. The upstream and downstream slopes of a rock fill dams depend on the type of impervious membrane and its location. They are cheaper then concrete dam and can be built rapidly if proper rock is available.

Rock fill Dam

Combined Earth and Rock fill Dam

It is a composite embankment dam. In this upstream consists of soil where as downstream portion is filled with rock. Upstream has a riprap. With cement grouted core wall to check seepage. Riprap makes upstream slope stronger against seepage and damage due to wave action.

Combined Earth and Rock fill Dam

Concrete Dams
They are Categorized as rigid dams because they are constructed of rigid material like concrete. They may be either straight or curved in plan. These types of dams are normally best suited on solid rock foundations. The construction of such dams requires heavy mechanized plants, concrete, aggregate, cement and sand.

Concrete Dams

Gravity Dams
It is a solid concrete dam which resists all external forces by its own weight. It needs a sound rock foundation because it transmits all the forces including self weight to the foundation. Most of the gravity dams are provided with an overflow portion known as spillway within the body of the dam

Gravity Dams
Advantages
It is Stronger and more stable than any other type of dam It can house an overflow spillway to pass excess flood water safely. It can built of any height provided suitable foundation is available to bear all the loads coming on it. The failure of a gravity dam is not sudden at all. It gives sufficient time for evacuation of area downstream of it.

Gravity Dams
Disadvantages
Its construction is possible only on sound rock foundation. Initial cost is higher. It needs skilled labor and mechanized plants for construction. It may take more time in construction, if manufacturing and transporting equipments are not available.

Gravity Dams

Arch Dam
It is curved Concrete Dam. The self weight of this dam is quite less compared to gravity dam it transmit major portion of water load to the abutments. Advantages It is particularly suited in Deep Georges where length is same compared to its height. Very small portion of water pressure is transmitted to foundation hence it can be built on moderate or weak foundation. It has less initial cost as compared to Gravity Dam.

Arch Dam
Disadvantages
It needs skilled labour, sophisticated formwork and specialized design. Construction time is normally Large. It needs very strong abutments of solid rock to resist arch thrusts It is not suitable if solid rocks are not available.

Arch Dam

Buttress Dams
They may be considered as lightened version of the gravity dam. A buttress dam consists of a continuous inclined upstream face supported by downstream buttresses at regular intervals. They may be of deck slab type. Multiple arch type, multiple dome type or bulk head type.

Buttress Dams
Advantages It requires less materials for construction It can be constructed on even weak foundation as pressure on foundation is quite less. The water pressure acts normal to the inclined deck. Hence the vertical components of water pressure stabilizes the dam against overturning and sliding.

Buttress Dams
Disadvantages It requires more for work than solid concrete dams. As Thickness of upstream concrete surface is less, it is more liable to get deteriorated It requires constant maintenance and supervision. Life of dam is less as compared to other dams.

Buttress Dams

Selection of Site for Dam

(1)Foundation: Suitable foundations must be available at the selected site for a particular type of dam. The foundation should be free from seams and faults. It is however possible to improve the foundation conditions by adopting suitable foundation treatments. (2) Topography: Dam site should have a narrow valley to reduce its length it should store maximum volume of water. A major portion of dam should be located on high ground as compared to river basin. This will reduce the cost of dam and facilitates easy drainage of dam section as well.

Foundation of Dam

Topography

Selection of Site for Dam

(3) Reservoir: Dam site should form deep reservoir with small water surface to reduce (i) evaporation loss and (ii) Submergence area (iii)and control on weed growth. The quantity of leakage through the sides and bed of selected site should be minimum. Reservoir site with the presence of permeable rocks reduces the water tightness of the reservoir. For larger storage in reservoir, dam site should be located at the confluence of two rivers.

Reservoir

Selection of Site for Dam

Catchment Area The geological conditions of catchment should be such that it yields maximum runoff. It should also have minimum percolation losses. The catchment area should avoid or exclude water from tributaries carrying high percentage of silt in water.

Catchment Area

Selection of Site for Dam

Spillway A suitable site for spillway should be available near dam site when spillway is to be located separately from dam. E.g. for earth or rock fill dam. There is no special site requirement for the spillway if it is to be built inside the dam.

Spillway

Selection of Site for Dam

Construction Materials Huge amount of materials is required for the construction of dam. Therefore construction materials should easily be available either locally or near vicinity of the site so as to reduce the transportation cost.

Selection of Site for Dam

Communication The dam Site should be easily approachable so that it can economically be connected to the important towns, cities etc. by rails or roads. Environmental Conditions: Healthy environmental conditions must be available at dam site to set up colonies, residential quarters for labours and other staff members

Selection of Site for Dam

Factors Governing the selection of Type of Dam

Selection of the kind of dam is the first task. The choice and selection of dam at a particular place in the river may depend on the following factors. Topography: This is the first factor which governs the choice of dam for a site (a) A low rolling plain topography gives choice of an earth dam with a separate site of spillway (b) A low narrow V-shaped valley with sound rock in the abutment suggests an arch dam.

Topography

Factors Governing the selection of Type of Dam

(2) Geology and Foundation Conditions: Next Important factor for the choice of Dam. (a) Solid rock foundation with no fault or fissures, any type of dam can be constructed. Rocks like granite, gneiss and schist provide good foundation for a gravity dam. Poor rock or gravel foundation suggests choice of an earthen dam, rock fill dam or low concrete gravity dam. Silt and fine sand foundation pose the problem of seepage settlement etc. Hence such foundations are suitable only for earth dam or low concrete gravity dam. They are not suitable for rock fill dam.

Geology and Foundation Conditions

Factors Governing the selection of Type of Dam

(3)Availability of material for Construction The Construction materials must be available locally o near the dam site in order to achieve economy in dam construction. The local availability of sand, gravel, crushed stone suggests concrete gravity dam. However, if coarse and fine grained soils are available locally, an earth dam may be suitable. (4) Spillway Size and Location Spillway is required for safe disposal of of flood water. When separate site of spillway is available earthen dam may be preferred. In case of large capacity spillway, an overflow concrete gravity dam having overflow section in the middle will be the best choice.

Factors Governing the selection of Type of Dam

(5) Roadway

The provision of roadway at the top of dam requires the choice of earth dam or gravity dam.

Spillway
Spillway are important auxiliary works of dams, provided to dispose of surplus floodwater safely which cannot be stored in the reservoir. Spillways are invariably provided in all the dams and often called safety valve for the dam. It is necessary to provide a spillway of sufficient capacity so as to avoid water from overtopping the dam. Overtopping of dam may lead to failure of dam resulting in serious damage to the property.

Spillway
Requirements of a spillway A Spillway should fulfill the following requirements The spillway should have sufficient capacity The location of spillway should provide safe disposal of water without toe erosion. Spillway should be hydraulically and structure sufficient Usually spillway should be accomplished by an energy dissipation work on its downstream side.

Components Parts of a Spillway

The various component parts of a spillway are as under (i) Control Structure Control Structure consists of a weir which may be sharp. It is a major component of a spillway. It regulates and controls the surplus water from the reservoir. It does not allow the discharge of water below from reservoir level and allows the discharge of water below from reservoir level and allows only when water surface in the reservoir rises above that level. (ii) Discharge Channel Discharge Channel It is provided to convey the surplus water released through control structures to the stream bed below the dam safely. The discharge channel may be the downstream face of spillway itself, or open channel excavated along the ground surface or a closed conduit placed through or under a dam.

Components Parts of a Spillway

Components Parts of a Spillway

Energy Dissipaters
They are usually provided on the downstream side of the spillway. High Voltage water coming through Spillway may cause serious damage to the toe of dam and to the adjacent structures. This high energy of flow must be dissipated before it flows back to river. For this, energy dissipaters are provided

Components Parts of a Spillway

Components Parts of a Spillway

Entrance and Outlet Channels
They are not required in case of an overflow spillway. However entrance channels are provided to draw water from reservoir and convey it to control structure. Similarly Outlet channels are provided to carry the spillway flow in river channel below the dam. Similarly, outlet channels are provided to carry the spillway flow to river channels below the dam.

Types of Spillways
According to the prominent features related to various components of spillway viz. control Structures, discharge channel etc. The spillways may be classified in the following types. Free Overfall Ogee or overflow spillway Trough Spillway Shaft Spillway Side Chanel Spillway Tunnel Spillway Siphon Spillway.

Types of Spillways
Free Over-fall This is the simplest type of Spillway which consists of a low height narrow crusted Weir having downstream face either vertical or nearly vertical. This type of Spillway is suitable for low earth dam, low concrete masonry gravity dam or low thin arch dam. It is not suitable for high Dam.

Free Over-fall

Types of Spillways
Ogee or Overflow Spillway
It is the modified form of drop spillway suitable for high gravity dam, arch dam and buttress dam. The overflow water is guided smoothly over the crest and profile of spillway. This type of spillway is more preferable on valleys where width of river is more to provide sufficient crest length and river bed can be protected from scouring at reasonable cost.

Ogee or Overflow Spillway

Types of Spillways
Trough Spillway
Trough spillway Is provided when it is not possible to provide an overflow spillway such as in case of embankment dam or due to erodible nature of stream bed in case of concrete masonry dams. It discharges the surplus flood through a steep sloped open channel. The crest of spillway is kept normal to its centre line. It consists of a discharge channel to the river.

Trough Spillway

Types of Spillways
Side Channel Spillway It is the Spillway in which, the flow after passing over a weir or ogee crest, is carried away by a side channel. It is best suited for non rigid dam like earthen dam.

Side Channel Spillway

Types of Spillways
Siphon Spillway: When available space is limited and surplus discharge is not large siphon spillway is often preferred. It is based on siphon action in the shape of an inverted pipe. Usually siphon spillway is provided in concrete gravity dam through its body.

Siphon Spillway

Energy Dissipation Below Spillway

Water flowing over a spillway has high potential energy as it glides along spillway. This large kinetic energy rises to high velocity of flow which may cause large scale scour/erosion at the downstream toe, if proper arrangements are not made to dissipate this high energy. The arrangements provided to dissipate this energy are known as energy dissipaters. In general the dissipation can be achieved in two ways By developing a Hydraulic jump By directing the jet of water using a deflector bucket.

Energy Dissipation Below Spillway

A. Roller Basin B. Deflector Bucket C. Flip Bucket D. Non-radial spillway and sluice buckets E. Schoklitsch Dissipater

Spillway Crust Gates

Gates provided over the crest of a controlled spillway are termed as spillway crest gates. An additional storage can be obtained by providing gates on the spillway crest. However, during floods, these gates are lifted to make full use of spillway capacity. Great care is needed to be taken while operating crest gates of earth dams so as to avoid the overtopping of earth dam.

Spillway Crust Gates

The following are some of the common types of crest gates. (i) Dropping shutters or flash boards They are some sort of temporary gates used only for smaller spillway of minor importance. They consists of wooden panels usually 1.0 to 1.25 m high. They are hinge at bottom and supported by struts to resist water Pressure. These wooden panels can be raised or lowered from an overhead cableway or a bridge.

Spillway Crust Gates

Radial Gates or Tainter Gates Radial gate has a curve water supporting face which is made of steel. Its shape is just as sector of a circle properly braced and hinged at the pivot. The gate is thus made to rotate above a horizontal axis. The load of the gate, water etc. is carried on bearing which are mounted on piers. An operating plateform is provided to lift the the gate by means of ropes and chain

Radial Gates or Tainter Gates

Drum Gates
This gate is developed by United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) this gates is suitable for longer span of the order of 40 or 50 m. The drum gate consists of circular sector in cross section formed by skin plates attached to internal bearing. The entire section may be raised or lowered such that upper surface coincides with the crest of spillway. The buoyant force due to head water pressure underneath the drum assists in its lifting. The drum Gate needs large recess and hence is not suitable for smaller spillway. Some other types of spillway gates are also used namely Vertical lift gates, rolling Gates, Tilting Gate or Flap Gate, Bear Trap gate.

Drum Gates

References

Design of Hydraulic Structures: Dr.R.K.Jain Internet Websites