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Property

In the macroscopic analysis of a substance any characteristic of the substance which can be measured or observed is called property of the substance. Examples of properties are pressure, volume and temperature. There are four major thermodynamic properties 1. Pressure (P) 2. Temperature (T) 3. Volume (V) 4. Energy (Q/W or U)
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 Pressure

Pressure is expressed as the intensity of force, thus it is, the force acting on a unit area. The unit of force is the Newton [N] and the unit area is the square meter [m2]. Therefore the unit of pressure is Newton per square meter [N/m2].

Gauge pressure and Absolute pressure

Most pressure recording instruments, including the ordinary pressure gauge and opened ended manometers, measures the pressure from the level of atmospheric pressure the pressure recoded is termed as gauge pressure.

THERMODYNAMICS

 Temperature

Temperature is an indicator of hotness or coldness and therefore is a measure of the intensity of heat. The most common temperature measuring instrument is the mercurial thermometer. Absolute temperature (T) Absolute temperature is often referred to as Thermodynamic Temperature. The unit is Kelvin which is represented by K, thus Thermodynamic temperature = Celsius temperature + 273.16 Volume The basic unit of volume is the cubic meters [m3]. The specific volume occupied by unit mass, the symbol is v and basic unit is cubic meter per kilogram [m3/kg]. the specific volume of fluids are temperature depended. Swept volume or stroke volume is the volume swept through by a piston in its cylinder of a reciprocating engine, pump, compressor, etc., it is the product of the piston area and the stroke of the piston. The space left between the position at inner dead centre and the cylinder head is termed the clearance volume.
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THERMODYNAMICS

 Energy Energy is defined as that capacity a body or substance possesses which can be result in the performance of work and measured by Joule(J). Work is defined as the result of moving a force through a distance. Work = force distance

Work is observed to be energy in transition. It is never contained in a body or possessed by a body. Heat and work are both transitory energies and not a intrinsic energy possessed by a system.
The sign convention used in a system for all external inputs are positive and outputs from the system are negative. That is,

Heat supplied to a system, + Q Heat rejected by the system, - Q Work input to a system, - W Work done by the system + W Power is the rate of doing work and measured by watts(W).

The mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the work got out of a machine to the work out put in to it and it is also equal to the ratio of the output power to the input power. The symbol for efficiency is and it may be expressed as a function or as a percentage.
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All thermodynamic systems require some working substance in order that the various operations required of each system can be carried out The working substance are, in general, fluids which are capable of deformation by compressing or expanding. Examples of working substance used in thermodynamic systems are air and steam. A pure substance is a single substance or mixture of substance which has the same consistent composition throughout. For example, steam and water, or mixture of steam and water can be considered as pure substances. Each has the same molecular structure through its mass. Air in its gaseous and liquid form is a pure substance but not the liquefaction process of air.

THERMODYNAMICS

 The importance of the concept of pure substance is that the condition,

or state, of a pure substance can be completely defined by any two independent properties of substance. For example, if the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of oxygen is known, then its temperature and such other properties are also completely known. In the macroscopic analysis of a substance any characteristic of the substance which can be measured or observed is called property of the substance. Eg: pressure , temperature, volume
Properties which are independent of mass, such as temperature and

pressure are said to be intensive properties.

Properties which are dependent upon mass such as volume and energy

in its various forms are called extensive properties.

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 The intensive values of a thermodynamic system, such as

temperature and pressure, are independent of the mass. The extensive properties are proportional to the mass such as volume.
System Hydrodynamic system Stretched wire Surface Intensive value Pressure P Tension T Surface tension Extensive value Volume V Length L Area A

Electrochemical cell

EMF

Charge Q

The various thermostatic properties of a substance define the

state of the substance. If a property is changed, then the state is changed.

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 Specific quantity

A property of unit mass of substance is called the specific quantity of that property for convenience. Examples of specific quantity are specific volume(v), specific heat capacity(c) and specific internal energy(u).
Absolute quantity

A property which independent of unit mass of substance is called absolute quantity of that property. Example of absolute quantity are absolute pressure(P), absolute temperature(T).

THERMODYNAMICS

Substance States
Matter can exist in several distinct forms which is termed phases. There are three substance states and they are solids, liquids and gases. Whether a substance is a solid, liquid or gas depends on the potential energy in the atomic forces holding the particles together and the thermal energy of the particle motions. The pressure on the substance also has an effect on the phase.

Latent Heat

Latent heat is the heat which supplies the energy necessary to overcome some of binding force of attraction between the molecules of a substance and is responsible for it changing its state from a solid to a liquid , or from a liquid into a vapor, the change taking place without any change of temperature.
The process of changing the physical state from a solid into a liquid is called fusion, and the quantity of heat required to change unit mass of the substance from solid to a liquid at the same temperature is the latent heat of fusion.

Eg: the latent heat of fusion for ice is 335 kJ/kg at 00C
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 The process of changing the physical state to a substance from a liquid

into a vapor is called evaporation and the quantity of heat to bring about this change at constant temperature to unit mass is the latent heat of evaporation.

The phase diagram shows that at the interfaces between solid and

liquid, liquid and gas and solid and gas it is possible for more than one phase to exist in equilibrium. The point at which all three phases come together is the triple point and represents the temperature and pressure for which all three states of matter can exist. For water this is, 273.16 K at 611.2 Pa. The other labeled point on the diagram is called the critical point, also called critical state. At this point the liquid and gaseous phases of a pure stable substance become identical.
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Worked Examples
1.

Calculate the heat required to be given to 2 kg of ice at -15 0C to change it into steam at atmospheric pressure. Specific heat of ice 2.04 kJ/kg K Latent heat of fusion of ice 335 kJ/kg Specific heat of water 4.2 kJ/kg K Latent heat of evaporation of water 2256.7 kJ/kg (6084.6 kJ)
initially 48 g of ice at 0 0C is in an aluminum calorimeter can of mass 2.0 g, also at 0 0C. then 75.0g of water at 80 0C is poured into the can. What is the final temperature? Specific heat of Al - 0.92 kJ/kg K Latent heat of fusion of ice 335 kJ/kg Specific heat of water 4.2 kJ/kg K (17.6 0C)

2.

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 The temperature at which a liquid boils and latent heat of evaporation depends strictly upon the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling point and the smaller the amount of latent heat required to evaporate it. When heat is transferred to or from a substance which changes only its temperature, and there is no physical change of state, it is referred to as sensible heat.
For constant pressure process, the heat energy transferred to a

substance is termed Enthalpy. The latent heat of fusion is termed enthalpy of fusion and latent heat of evaporation is termed enthalpy of evaporation H=mh where H = enthalpy (kJ),m = mass (kg) and h = specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Specific enthalpy h = u + p v

Where u = internal energy (kJ/kg), p = absolute pressure (N/m2) and v = specific volume (m3/kg)
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 The energy required to produce the total change form

unit mass(1kg) of solid substance into liquid at constant pressure is called the specific enthalpy of fusion.
The energy required to produce the total change from

unit mass (1kg) of liquid into gaseous form at constant pressure is called the specific enthalpy of evaporation.

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End of the chapter

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