Electronics

A foil and paper condenser (capacitor) can store electrons on the surface of the foil.

As the capacitor is charging, the battery forces electricity through the circuit.

Capacitor symbols are shown in electrical diagrams. The negative plate is often shown curved.

A capacitor blocks direct current (DC) but passes alternating current (AC). A capacitor makes a vary good noise suppressor because most of the interference is AC and the capacitor will conduct this AC to ground before it can reach the radio or amplifier.

TECH TIP

When a material is magnetized, the atoms all align in one direction.

Magnetic lines of force leave the north pole and return to the south pole of a bar magnet.

Magnetic poles behave like electrically charged particlesunlike poles attract and like poles repel.

If a magnet breaks or is cracked, it becomes two weaker magnets. TECH TIP

Surrounding any conductor carrying an electrical current is a magnetic field.

An iron core concentrates the magnetic lines of force surrounding a coil.

Electromagnetic switch. A light current (low amperes) produces an electromagnet and causes the contact points to close.

The contact points then conduct a heavy current (high amperes) to an electrical unit.

Voltage can be induced by the relative motion between a conductor and magnetic lines of force.

Alternating current (AC) voltage can be generated by rotating a loop conductor in a magnetic field.
This is the principle of operation of generators (alternators).

N-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material such as phosphorus (P) with five electrons in the outer orbit results in an extra free electron.

P-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material such as boron (B) with three electrons in the outer orbit results in a hole capable of attracting an electron.

Unlike charges attract and the current carriers (electrons and holes) move toward the junction.

A diode is a component with Pand N-type material together. The negative electrode is called the cathode and the positive electrode is called the anode.

Diode connected to a battery with correct polarity (+ to + and to -).

Current flows through the diode. This condition is called forward bias.

Diode connected with reversed polarity. No current flows across the junction between the P-type and N-type material.

This connection is called reverse bias.

TECH TIP

A symbol of a diode (top) and the markings on a typical diode (bottom).

Frequently

Asked Question

(a) Notice that when the coil is being energized, the diode is reversed biased and the current is blocked from passing through the diode.
The current flows through the coil in the normal direction. (b) When the switch is opened, the magnetic field surrounding the coil collapses, producing a highvoltage surge in the reverse polarity of the applied voltage. This voltage surge forward biases the diode, and the surge is dissipated harmlessly back through the windings of the coil.

Spike protection diodes are commonly used in computer-controlled circuits to prevent damaging high-voltage surges that occur any time current flowing a coil is stopped.

A zener diode is commonly used inside automotive computers to protect delicate electronic circuits from high-voltage spikes. A 35-volt zener diode will conduct any voltage spike resulting from the discharge of a coil safely to ground through a current-limiting resistor in series with the zener diode.

Diagnostic Story

TECH TIP

A seven-segment LED can be used to display a number or letter.

Frequently

Asked Question

Typical photodiodes.

Symbol for a photodiode. The arrows represent light striking the P-N junction of the photodiode.

Either symbol may be used to represent a photoresistor.

Symbols used to represent a thermistor.

Transistor symbols and construction.

When a transistor is forward biased (+ to base of an NPN transistor), electrons from the emitter pass through the base to the collector and greater overall forward current flows. Note that greater reverse current flows in the output circuit because more holes in the collector are filled by free electrons.

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Symbols for a phototransistor: (a) uses the line for the base, whereas (b) does not.