Groundnut

Package of Practices

Importance
Synonym: peanut, China Badam, Badam , wonder legume (for its flowering, pegging & pod formation pattern) Distribution: 80 countries, between 400 N to 400 S latitude in tropical warm climate, upto 1000 M above sea level Rainfall of 500 to 1250 mm India is first in area and second in production after China, It is a herb, erect/trailing, photo insensitive. Used as oilseed, vine for fodder/manure Soil type: well drained, light colored, loose, friable, sandy loam soils well supplied with Ca & moderate amount of Organic matter Heavy & stiff clays are unsuitable for rainfed Groundnut as they cause difficulties in pod growth & harvesting

Peanuts as Plants
After the flowers are pollinated, the flower stalks elongate and turn downward. They bury into the ground a few inches, and the fruit develops underground. The fruits (the peanut shell) contain 2/4 seeds. At harvesting, the whole plant is removed from the ground, and the peanuts are removed by manually or by mechanical pickers.

Nutritional qualities of groundnut

Oil content 44-55%; Protein content 22-32%, B&E Cake contain 45-50% protein- rich in all amino acids except Leucine & Methionine An adult requires protein-55g/day. It has antinutritional factors- Trypsin inhibitor & Phytic acid (inactivated by boiling & roasting) Oil contain 30% of Linoleic acid Soluble sugars 8-14%, Ca, Fe, Vit.

Origin
It was first found in the Anion located in the Peruvian coast near Lima in pre-historic cemetery. Peanuts were domesticated in Peru, and spread throughout the world by European traders after the Spanish conquest. Cultivated as early as 1200-1500BC Its cultivation was widely distributed in S America Krapovickas: Peruvian type carried from American West coast, Mexico, Philippines , China & India(16th C)

Origin: A. hypogaea center of origin near Bolivia, Uruguay, and Paraguay.

They quickly became very popular in Africa, and they were brought into the US by Africans being enslaved in the 1700s. Thought to be fit only for pigs and poor people until about 1850s. Became a popular snack during the Civil War (1861-1865), and then at baseball games and circuses after the war.

Area, Yield and Production

Country United States China India Yield (MT per Area (Million ha) hectare) 0.65 4.7 5 0.42 4.75 5.4 10.44 2.5 1 1 23.68 4.73 3.55 1 0.96 1.2 0.91 0.85 1.72 4.24 3.49 1.02 0.97 1.2 1 0.85 1.66 Production (MMT) 3.07 16.7 5 9.87 3 0.75 0.85 39.94 1.77 16.6 5.5 10.15 3 1 0.85 39.34

Change in Production from last Yr

Percent

2012/13 2013/14 2012/13 2013/14 2012/13 2013/14 MMT

-1.3 -0.1 0.5 0 0 0.25 0 -0.6

-42.34 -0.6 10 2.81 0 33.33 0 -1.49

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Sub-Saharan Africa 10.26 Nigeria Senegal Sudan World 2.5 0.83 1 23.28

CLASSIFICATION
Based on growth habit

a) Spreading: branches are spreading, main shoot may erect or

bent b) Semi-spreading: main shoot always erect c) Bunch: branches makes acute angle with the erect main shoot

Classification of Groundnut

Genera & species

A. hypogaea
hypogaea fastigiata

Subspecies

Variety Type

hypogaea

hirsuta

fastigiata

vulgaris

Virginia Peruvian

Valensia

Spanish

runner
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Two subspecies
Hypogaea
Do not flower on main stem Mature later Have higher water requirement Alternate branching pattern Larger seed Produce flowers on main stem Have sequential branching Mature earlier Lower water requirement Smaller seed

Fastigiata

Characters Spanish-valensia & Virginia groups

Characters
Seed size Seeds/pod Seed dormancy Flowers on main shoot Branching pattern No. of branches

Spanish-Valencia
Medium to small 2-4, rarely 5 Very little / absent Present Continuous Few to medium Bunch 100-125

Virginia
Medium to big/very big 2, rarely 3 Medium to long Absent Alternate Medium to heavy Spreading / semispreading, bunch 135-175

Length of primary branch

Growth habit Duration(days)

Smaller than main shoot Bigger than main shoot

Leaf color
Peak flowering stage Leaf tip shape

Light green
6-10 weeks Round

Dark green
8-12 weeks Acute Present
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Growth of plant after pod Absent formation

Important package of practices

Rain dependent cropping system. Never irrigated Land preparation by hand, bullock and tractors Use of gypsum is necessary for compact filling of groundnut (250 kg/ha to 500 kg/ha), source of Calcium & Sulphur. Selection of variety according to soil type and sowing time. Seed should be shelled 7-30 days before sowing. Seed treatment with 3 gm Thiram or Mencozeb 2 gm/ kg seed for the control of collar rot. Application of Phorate (10%) or Quinalphos (5%) @ 25 kg /ha before groundnut sowing to control the attack of white grub up to 35-40 days. In the standing crop use of 4 lit Quinalphos 25 EC or Imidacloropid 200 S.L. @ 300 ml/ ha with irrigation control the white grub attack on later stage.

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Land Preparation
Primary tillage implements: Disc ploughs and discs harrow Secondary tillage implements: cultivator. fine tilth before sowing, free from weeds, clods free, Crop need protection from water logging and shallow furrows should be provided at regular interval. Drain to be laid out along slope NPK:: 20:10:45 kg/ha Ensure that the site selected is cleared of any debris or stubble from previous crops before the onset of rains. Gather and burn all the debris to avoid carry-over of pests and diseases. Land preparation involves ploughing, harrowing and ridging.
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Ploughing
Ploughing turns the soil over to cover the weeds that are already growing in the plot to be used. It increases soil fertility through decomposition of weeds. It increases porosity of the soil making the crop to develop a big root network. It can be done using the hoe, animal drawn ploughs and tractor drawn ploughs. Ploughing with oxen or tractor drawn ploughs is recommended.
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Harrowing
Harrowing further turns and breaks the soil after ploughing. It creates a soft bed. It increases the capacity of the soil to absorb water thereby increasing yield. It can also be done with the hoe, animal-drawn harrows and tractor-drawn harrows.

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Ridging
Involves heaping the top soil to form a raised ridge on which seeds are planted. Helps the crop to have a good bed for root establishment and to prevent lodging. Improves drainage in water logged areas. It concentrates nutrients from top soil near the crop for easy access. Ridging can be done with the hoe, animal or tractor-drawn implements. Make straight ridges 30-45 cm apart

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Tips on Land Preparation

For land under fallow, plough once, harrow once or twice and ridge for best results. For land under cultivation, plough at least once every three years. This breaks hard pans. Harrow every year and ridge every year. Where available, apply farm-yard manure at 4-6 tons/ha on the field before land preparation. Farm yard manure improves soil fertility, soil consistency, soil drainage, water retention and structure. It also improves the uptake of inorganic fertilizers.

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Temperature and rainfall

Most suitable temperature for germination 21-28 C For growth and flower production 25-30 C Best adapted in areas having rainfall 500-1000 mm Can be grown in areas with low rainfall 300-400 mm Ripening required warm and dry period for 1 month

- Pre plant irrigation that wets the soil signifying the importance of adequate moisture Rainfall during pod development is harmful to crop

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Soils

Well drained Loose and friable with high organic matter Sandy to loamy soils are more suitable than clayey soils

pH: 5.5-7.5
Water logging and alkalinity are deterrent to pod-filling.

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Seed Rate, Spacing and Sowing

Seed rate 100-120 kg/ha 30 x 10cm, 30 x15cm 2.5 to 3.33 lakhs plants/ha

Select good quality seeds and adopt the seed rate depending Spacing on variety/hybrid, fertility of soil & moisture Plant population Seed Treatment: Use pelleted seeds with 5 gm Bavistin/Carbandazim, Metalaxyl (e.g. Apron Star) Sowing to be done after first rains so that sufficient moisture in soil for emergence.

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Seeding methods
Planting date - rule of thumb availability of moisture at planting & during the vegetative/reproduction stage & its absence after maturity and at harvest Planting depth Depends on seed size & soil type 2.5 to 5cm

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Seed

Made up of two cotyledons & embryo Embryo

plumule hypocotyl primary root

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Place Seed into Good Moisture

Planting Depth 2.5

1.5 of Moisture

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At germination and emergence, the hypocotyl and primary root are known collectively as the radicle.

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Sowing

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Peanut plants are in a vegetative growth stage for the first 35 - 40 days after planting.

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The peanut plant is very deep rooted. Roots can be found several feet deep.

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Irrigation Management Critical growth stages for irrigation

Establishment 10-20 DAS Vegetative 25-35 DAS Flowering and pegging 3550 DAS Pod formation 50-75 DAS Pod Development 80-100
Critical water stage is 40 110 DAS DO NOT allow stress in last 30 days

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Weeds Control
Traditional control The critical period of weed competition was between 2025 and 35-40 days after emergence (DAE). Chemical control Alachlor/Fluchloralin at the rate of 1.5 liter per ha as a pre-emergence application. Apply stomp (pendimethalin 3 L/ha) at 03 day after sowing

Carry out second weeding 5-6 weeks after planting at the time of pegging and earthing up to be completed simultaneously.

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Precaution regarding use of Pesticides

Use appropriate herbicides at recommended doses. Ensure you wear hand gloves and nose mask and dress properly when applying pesticides. Take proper measures to dispose cans or containers after using the content, for safety.

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Weeds Control Weed Control

Pre-sowing: Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha soil applied and incorporatede followed by light irrigation. Pre-emergence: Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin @ 3.3l/ha applied on third day after sowing through flat fan nozzle with 500 l of water/ha followed by irrigation. After 35 - 40 days one hand weeding may be given. Spray Imazethapyr @ 750 ml/ha at 20-30 days after sowing based on weed density as post emergence spray. If no herbicide is applied two hand hoeing and weeding are given on 20th and 40th day after sowing. Apply, PE Oxyfluorfen @ 200 g/ha on 3rd DAS and followed by one hand weeding on 40-45 DASApply, PE Oxadiazon @ 0.8 kg/ ha followed by one earthing up using hoes (or) PE Metalachlor @ 1.0 kg/ha followed by one hand weeding on 40 DAS.
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EARTHING UP
Accomplish earthing up during second hand weeding/late hand weeding (in herbicide application). It is an important operation in groundnut. Earthing up is to be done within 40-45 days after sowing as it helps for the penetration of pegs in the soil and also facilitates for increased pod development. NOTE: Earthing up provides medium for the peg development Use the improved hoe with long handle which can be worked more efficiently in a standing position.

Do not disturb the soil after 45th day of sowing as it will affect pod formation adversely.

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A peanut leaf is made up of four leaflets.

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Peanut plants will begin to lap about mid season providing complete canopy coverage

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About 35 days after planting, the peanut plant begins its reproductive stage with the onset of blooms.

The peanut flower is a perfect flower, with both male and female parts present in the same flower.
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R1

R2

R3

Beginning bloom
R4

Beginning peg
R5

Beginning pod
R6

Full pod R7

Beginning seed

Full seed

Reproductive Growth Stages of Peanut

Beginning maturity
Growth stages of peanut K. J. Boote, Peanut Science 9:35-40
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Flowering
A flowering branch never occurs at the same node as a vegetative branch. Indeterminate growth, better at good sunshine Anthesis - 5.30 to 7.30am Stigma becomes receptive about 24 h before anthesis and its receptivity persists for about 12 hours after anthesis Pollination is affected 7-8 hrs before blooming If anther dehiscence gets affected due to cloudy weather, the style continues growth & stigma become protrude & pollinated by alien pollen through insect Pollen grains are smooth, oval, and sticky, Fertilization occurs about 6h after pollination. All flowers don not end up in forming pods
2/5 flowers- shed off at beginning 2/5 flowers- do not form pod even after pod formation On an avg. 1/7 forms pod
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At the base of the peanut flower are the ovaries. Pollen grains shed in the petals and attach to the stigma. The first pollen grains that mature and travel down the pollen tube, fertilize the ovaries.

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Pegging
Within 7 days after fertilization the intercalary meristem below the ovary starts become activate & female whorl located on the third internode also starts getting enlarged This in later stages takes the shape of thick root & carry the fertilized ovary in its tip called peg Movement geotropic penetrate soil up to 7cm depth & become diageotropic The pod formation will start after growth of peg stops Time taken by peg to reach the soil surface is 2-8 days in bunch type & 5-10days in spreading type, Only 44% pegs form pod Soil should be soft to facilitates peg insertion Pods are slightly or deeply constricted (depends on variety, soil-type, season)
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 The fertilized ovary is referred to as a peg. The peg grows toward the soil surface and pushes 1 to 3 into the soil. The tip of the peg takes in water and nutrients, and

swells to become the

peanut pod.
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Heat or pests can damage pegs

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Pegs entering the soil

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Peanut blooms

Peanut pegs and pods below 42 groun

Important insect pest

Leaf miner (Aproerema modicella) White grub (Holotrichia sp.) Hairy catterpillar (Armsacta albistraga) Termite (Microtermus sp. & Nasutitermus sp.)

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White Grub
(Holotrichia consanguinea, Holotrichia serrata)
Identification & Monitoring It is a polyphagus pest. Adults are 18-20 mm long and 7-9 mm wide. The eggs are white, almost round. The young grubs are translucent, white and 5 mm long. Beetles emerge out of the soil within 3-4 days after the onset of rain. Install light traps with the onset of rains and count the number of beetles per day. Dig 100 X 100 X 20 cm pit @ 10 pits per ha, collect and count the number of beetles per pt. Damage Both adults and larvae are damaging stage The larvae feeds roots and damage pods. Grubs feed on fine rootlets, resulting in pale, wilted plants dying in patches.
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Cultural Control Deep ploughing in summer. Always use well decomposed organic manure it attracts the adult beetles. Partial or complete lopping of host plants and retaining of a few most preferred host trees in the area for congregation of white grub adults. Crop rotation with sorghum/pearl millet or maize. Early sowing to avoid damage due to insect pest. Standing crops of fodder, sugarcane etc. are also protected. Collection and destruction of white grub adults from host trees around the field. Chemical Control Apply safe chemical insecticides at recommended doses only if the insect population crosses the ETL. Spray should be undertaken as a community approach and should be repeated after every rainfall till the middle of July. Spraying the trees close to the field with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/lit of water soon after first monsoon showers for 3-4 days in the late evening hours kills the adult beetles and reduces root grub infestation. Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos 20 EC ( 6.5 to 12.5 ml/kg seed) is found effective. In case of severe infestation apply 10% phorate @ 10 kg/ha.
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Groundnut leaf miner

(Stomopteryx subscecivella)
Identification & Monitoring

The adult is a brownish gray moth, 6 mm long with 10 mm wing span. The eggs are shiny white and are laid singly underside of the leaflets. The larvae mine in to the leaves and are about 1 mm long at first and enlarge as the larvae grow. Pupation takes place in the webbing. Install pheromone trap @ 1/ha for monitoring It is severe during August-October. ETL is 2-3 larvae/plant or 10% leaflets damaged in central whorl Damage Young larvae initially mine into the leaflets, feed on the mesophyll and form small brown blotches on the leaf. Later stages larvae web the leaflets together and feed on them, remaining within the folds. Severely attacked field looks "burnt" from a distance.

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Chemical Control
Apply safe chemical insecticides at recommended doses

only if the insect population crosses the ETL.

Effective control could be achieved if insecticide is applied at 45 and 70 days after planting.

Carbaryl 50WP 0.2 per cent spray was found to be most

economical for controlling this pest; or Spray Quinalphos 25 EC 2ml or Methyldemeton 25 EC 1.6ml or Dimethoate 30 EC 2ml /lit of water.

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Bihar hairy caterpillar

(Spilosoma (Diacrisia) obliqua)
Identification & Monitoring The adult is a brown moth with a 40-50 mm wing span and a red abdomen. Eggs are laid in clusters of 50-100, on the lower side of leaves. The larvae are covered with long yellowish to black hairs and are up to 5 cm long. Pupation takes place in the soil under dry foliage and debris. The pupa forms a thin silken cocoon by interwoven shed hairs of the larvae.

Damage Young larvae feed gregariously mostly on the under surface of the leaves. Feed on leaves and cause loss by way of defoliation. In severe cases only stems are left behind. In defoliated crop it also feed on capsules.

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Chemical Control
Apply safe chemical insecticides at recommended doses only if the insect population crosses the ETL. Dust Lindan 1.3% or Fanvalerate 0.4% 15.20 kg/ha, the early stage is easy to control. Form a deep furrow trench around the field and dust with two per cent methyl parathion to prevent the mass migration of hairy caterpillars. Spraying of quinalphos 25 EC (2 ml/lit), or chlorpyriphos 20 EC (2.5 ml/lit) or endosulfan 35 EC (2.0 ml/lit) recommended when the caterpillars are younger. Mechanical Control Setting up bonfires on field bunds during night. Mass collection and destruction of eggs and just emerged caterpillars. Place the twigs and leaves of calotropis, jatropha and papaya around the field to trap grown up caterpillars and destruction.
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Tobacco caterpillar
Identification & Monitoring The adults are light brown moths with a wing span of about 30 mm and mottled forewings. The egg masses about 4 X 7 mm appear golden brown on the upper surface of leaves, Young larvae are light green in color, feed mostly during night time. Full grown larvae are stout, cylindrical and pale greenish brown with dark markings. The pupae are reddish brown and is in the soil close to the plant. Monitor the flight intensity of the larvae using traps like pheromone trap. It is one of the serious pests of groundnut. Damage Freshly hatched larvae feed gregariously, scraping the chlorophyll, soon disperse. Later stages feed voraciously on the foliage at night, hiding usually in the soil around the base of the plants during the day. Sometimes the feeding is so heavy that only petioles and branches are left behind. In light soil, caterpillar bores into the pods.
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(Spodoptera litura)

Control
Cultural Deep summer ploughing. Early sowing to escape insect pest damage. Irrigate once to avoid prolonged mid season drought Planting castor or sunflower plants as trap crop for egg laying and destroying eggs or 1st stage larvae help in reducing the incidence. The sunflower act as bird perches as well. Chemical Control Apply insecticides only if the insect population crosses the ETL. Apply Methyl parathion 2% dust @ 20 kg/ha or spraying of monochrotophos 36 SL or Quinolphos 25 EC @ 1500 ml or Trizophos 40EC @ 800 ml in 700-800 lit of water. Poison bait with monocrotophos 36 SL or carbaryl, rice bran, jaggery and water can be used to control the grown up larvae.
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Termites
(Odontotermes spp)
Identification & Monitoring

The termites favour red and sandy soils. These are social insects, live in termitaria, in distinct castes, workers, kings and queen. Eggs are laid on plants and in the soil. 'Workers' are small (4 mm) and have a soft, white body and a brown head

Damage Termites penetrate and hollow out the tap root and stem thus kill the plant. Bore holes into pods and damage the seed. It removes the soft corky tissue from between the veins of pods causing scarification, weaken the shells, make them liable to entry and growth of Aspergillus flavurs thatproduces aflotoxins.
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Control
Cultural Control Digging the termitaria and destruction of the queen is most important in termite management. Use well rotten organic manure. Harvest the groundnuts as soon as they are matured, early removal of the produce from the field will reduce the chances of termite damage to pods. Clean cultivation Irrigate the crop frequently Thorough ploughing and frequent interculture Mechanical Control Avoid physical loss of the crop during harvesting. Destruction of debris, termite nests and queen Chemical Control Apply safe chemical insecticides at recommended doses only if the insect population crosses the ETL. Apply chlorpyriphos 20 EC or Lindane 1.3% to control termites. Or apply dust of chlorpyriphos @ 30-40 kg/ha in soil before sowing. Seed dressing with insecticides such as 6.5ml of chloropyriphos /kg of seed may reduce termite damage.
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Important diseases

Early leaf spot (Circospora arachidicola) Late leaf spot (phaeoisariopsis personata) Rust (Puccinia arachids) Peanut necrosis Root knot nematode Bacterial leaf spot

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Early Leaf spot

Cercospora arachidicola
Damage Infection starts about 1 month after sowing. Small chlorotic spots appear on leaflets, with time they enlarge and turn brown to black and assume sub circular shape on upper leaf surface. On lower surface of leaves light brown colouration is seen. Lesions also appear on petioles, stems, stipules. In severe cases several lesions coalesce and result in premature senescene. Survival & Favourable Conditions Monoculture of groundnut, lower temp (25o C), long periods of high relative humidity and rainfall favour the disease. Control Spray carbendazim 0.1% or mancozeb 0.2% or chlorothalonil 0.2%.
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Above: Severity of groundnut leaf spot diseases (sprayed plants on the right of each photograph)
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Late leaf Spot

Damage Infection starts around 55-57 days after sowing Nearly circular spots appear on the lower surface of the leaflets. Lesions are rough in appearance. In extreme cases many lesions coalesce resulting in premature senescence and shedding of the leaflets. Survival & Favourable Conditions Temperature of 18-30o C, leaf wetness and a total wetness and a late wet spell, magnesium deficiency and heavy application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers favour the development of disease.
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Control
Mechanical Control Deep burying of crop residues in the soil, removal of volunteer groundnut plants are important measures in reducing the primary source of infection. Biological Control Foliar application of aqueous neem leaf extract (2-5%) or 5% neem seed kernel extract at 2 weeks' interval 3 times starting from 4 weeks after planting. Chemical Control Spray carbendazim 0.1% or mancozeb 0.2% or chlorothalonil 0.2%.
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RUST
Puccinia arachidis
Damage Rust can be readily recognized as orange coloured pustules that appear on the lower leaflet surface and rupture to expose masses of reddish brown. Pustules appear first on the lower surface and in highly susceptible cultivars the original pustules may be surrounded by colonies of secondary pustules. Pustules may also appear on the upper surface of the leaflet. The pustules are usually circular and range from 0.5 to 1.4 mm in diameter. They may be formed on all aerial plant parts apart from flower and pegs. Severely infected leaves turn necrotic and desiccate but are attached to the plant.

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Survival & Favourable Conditions Wet weather coupled with a temp of 22-25o C favours the disease. Cultural Control Crop rotation and field sanitation. Strict plant quarantine regulations should be enforced to avoid the spread of rust on pods or seeds to disease free areas. Early sowing in the first fortnight of June to avoid disease incidence. Intercropping pearl millet or sorghum with groundnut (1 :3) is useful in reducing the intensity of rust. Use resistant/tolerant varieties. Destroy volunteer (self sown) groundnut plants and crop debris to reduce / limit primary source of inoculum. Chemical Control Spray chlorothaalonil 0.2%; or mancozeb 0.25% or Hexaconazole/propaconazole to reduce disease incidence.

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Bud necrosis
Peanut Bud Necrosis Virus (PBNV)
Damage

Chlorotic spots appear on young leaflets and necrotic rings & streaks are developed.

Terminal bud necrosis occurs when temperature is relatively high. As the plant matures it becomes stunted with short internodes and proliferation of auxiliary shoots.

The virus is mainly transmitted by thrips. Survival & Favourable Conditions The virus survives in the hosts of thrips and acts as a source of inoculums for the vector.

The thrips are carried by wind. The population of vectors increases rapidly from January-March and AugustSeptember Kharif and hence the crop suffers a heavy loss in both the seasons.

Chemical Control

Spray monocrotophos 1.6 ml/l or dimethoate 2 ml/l .

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Nitrogen fixing nodules on peanut root This is NOT nematode damage! 63

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The seed is attached to the inner hull layer by the funiculus. The funiculus functions as an umbilical cord, transporting water and nutrients to the kernel.

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Factors Affecting Peanut Maturity

Weather
Too hot hastens Too cool slows

Pest pressure
Diseases defoliation by leaf spot, weakened vines, weak peg stems Insects defoliation by foliage feeders, chew peg stems

Fertility
N deficiency Mn deficiency

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Hull Scrape Maturity Profile

Based on color change of mesocarp, Exocarp can be removed by knife or pod blaster Color change goes from lighter (immature) to darker (mature): white, light yellow, dark yellow,
orange, brown, black

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Harvesting
Time of harvesting depends on the variety. Symptoms of Maturity are yellowing of leaves, shedding of older leaves, development of proper color of testa and dark tint inside the shell, Usually matures in 120-150 DAS. Harvested crops is left in small heaps for 2-3 days for curing Average yields ranges from 1.0 to 3.0 MT/ Ha depending on varieties/type/Package of practices
Average shelling is 70% Oil to nut in shell is 28 % Oil to Kernels crushed is 40%; Cake to Kernels crushed is 60 %

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Plucking of peanut

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Storage of peanut hay

STORAGE OF PEANUT HAY

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Storage methods of peanut

CRIB STORAGE

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HAND SHELLING OF PEANUT

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STORAGE OF PEANUT IN SACKS NO PESTICIDES ARE APPLIED

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Steps in Postharvest management system

Harvesting: Ensure the crop has reached the required maturity Threshing: Remove the cobs and separate the seeds Cleaning: Ensure the crop is free from dust and other dirty Sorting Grading Drying: Dry the crop up to 5% moisture content Storage in a cool, well ventilated, moisture free structure/Bin, Silo, Sacks, etc at 12-200C.
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