Ee2351 Psa Notes New

EE2351 R.
KALAIVANI AP/EEE 1
EE2351
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
R.KALAIVANI
EEE DEPARTMENT

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
EE2351 R.KALAIVANI AP/EEE 2
UNIT I

INTRODUCTION
Power system network
SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

It is a diagrammatic representation of a power system in
which the components are represented by their symbols.

COMPONENTS OF A POWER SYSTEM
1.Alternator
2.Power transformer
3.Transmission lines
4.Substation transformer
5.Distribution transformer
6.Loads

MODELLING OF GENERATOR AND
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

1 equivalent circuit of generator 1 equivalent circuit of synchronous motor
MODELLING OF TRANSFORMER
2 2 1
1 1 2
'
2
01 1 2 1
2
'
2
01 1 2 1
2
E N I
K
E N I
R
R R R R
K
X
X X X X
K
= = =
= + = +
= + = +
=Equivalent resistance referred to 1
o
=Equivalent reactance referred to 1
o
MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINE
type T type
MODELLING OF INDUCTION MOTOR
'
'
'
1
( 1)
r
S r
S r
R
s
R R R
X X X
= +
= +
=Resistance representing load
=Equivalent resistance referred to stator
=Equivalent reactance referred to stator

( ) ( )
2 2
1000
b b
b
b
b
kV kV
Z
KVA
MVA
= =
per unit=actual value/base value
Let KVA
b
=Base KVA
kV
b
=Base voltage
Z
b
=Base impedance in

Changing the base of per unit quantities
Let z = actual impedance()
= base impedance

()

b
Z
( ) ( )
.
2 2
*
b
p u
b
b b
b
Z MVA Z Z
Z
Z
kV kV
MVA
= = =
Let , ,
, ,
&
&
b old b old
b new b new
kV MVB
kV MVB
represent old base values
represent new base values
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,
. ,
2
,
. , ,
2
,
,
. ,
2
,
2
,
,
. , . ,
2
,
,
*
(1)
*
(2)
*
(3)
* *
b old
p u old
b old
p u old b old
b old
b new
p u new
b new
b old
b new
p u new p u old
b old
b new
Z MVA
Z
kV
Z MVA
Z
kV
Z MVA
Z
kV
kV
MVA
Z Z
MVA
kV
=
=
=
=
ADVANTAGES OF PER UNIT CALCULATIONS
The p.u impedance referred to either side of a 1
transformer is same
The manufacturers provide the impedance value in p.u
The p.u impedance referred to either side of a 3
transformer is same regardless of the 3 connections Y-
Y,-Y
p.u value always less than unity.
IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
This diagram obtained by replacing each component by
their 1 equivalent circuit.
Following approximations are made to draw impedance
diagram
1. The impedance b/w neutral and ground omitted.
2. Shunt branches of the transformer equivalent circuit
neglected.
REACTANCE DIAGRAM
It is the equivalent circuit of the power system in which
the various components are represented by their
respective equivalent circuit.

Reactance diagram can be obtained after omitting all
resistances & capacitances of the transmission line from
impedance diagram
REACTANCE DIAGRAM FOR THE GIVEN POWER SYSTEM
NETWORK
PROCEDURE TO FORM REACTANCE
DIAGRAM FROM SINGLE DIAGRAM
1.Select a base power kVA
b
or MVA
b

2.Select a base

voltage kV
b

3. The voltage conversion is achieved by means of transformer kV
b
on LT
section= kV
b
on HT section x LT voltage rating/HT voltage rating
4. When specified reactance of a component is in ohms
p.u reactance=actual reactance/base reactance
specified reactance of a component is in p.u
( )
( )
2
,
,
. , . ,
2
,
,
* *
b old
b new
p u new p u old
b old
b new
kV
MVA
X X
MVA
kV
=
p.u. calculation of 3 winding transformer
Zp=Impedance of primary winding
Zs=Impedance of secondary winding
Zt=Impedance of tertiary winding
Short circuit test conducted to find out the above 3
impedances

'
' '
' '
1
2
1
2
1
2
p ps pt st
s ps st pt
t ps pt st
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z
( = +

( = +

( = + +

ps
Z
pt
Z
= Leakage impedance measured in 1
o
with 2
o
short circuited
and tertiary open.
= Leakage impedance measured in 1
o
with tertiary short
circuited and 2
o
open.

'
st
Z = Leakage impedance measured in 2
o
with tertiary short
circuited and 1
o
open and referred to primary
PRIMITIVE NETWORK
It is a set of unconnected elements which provides information
regarding the characteristics of individual elements. it can be
represented both in impedance & admittance form
BUS ADMITTANCE(Y BUS) MATRIX
Y BUS can be formed by 2 methods
1.Inspection method
2.Singular transformation

Y BUS =
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
n
n
n n nn
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
--
| |
|
--
|
|
--
\ .
INSPECTION METHOD
For n bus system
Diagonal element of Y BUS

Off Diagonal element of Y BUS

ij ij
Y y =
1
n
ii ij
j
Y y
=
=

SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD

Y BUS =
Where [y]=primitive admittance
A=bus incidence matrix

| |
T
A y A
ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF THE
BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
Modification of Zbus matrix involves any one of the following 4 cases

Case 1:adding a branch impedance z
b
from

a new bus p to
the reference bus
Addition of new bus will increase the order the Z
bus
matrix by 1

(n+1)th column and row elements are zero except the diagonal
diagonal element is z
b

,
0
0
original
bus new
b
z
Z
z
| |
=
|
\ .
Case 2: adding a branch impedance z
b
from

a new bus p
to the existing bus q
Addition of new bus will increase the order the Z
bus
matrix by 1
The elements of (n+1)th column and row are the elements of
qth column and row and the diagonal element is Z
qq
+Z
b

b
from

an existing bus p to
the reference bus
The elements of (n+1)th column and row are the elements of
qth column and row and the diagonal element is Z
qq
+Z
b
and

(n+1)th row and column should be eliminated using the following
formula

( 1) ( 1)
,
( 1)( 1)
1, 2... ; 1, 2..
j n n k
jk act jk
n n
Z Z
Z Z j n k n
Z
+ +
+ +
= = =
b
between existing buses h and q
elements of (n+1)th column are elements of bus h column
bus q column and elements of (n+1)th row are elements of
bus h row bus q row the diagonal element=
and (n+1)th row and column should be eliminated using the following
formula

2
b hh qq hq
Z Z Z Z + +
( 1) ( 1)
,
( 1)( 1)
1, 2... ; 1, 2..
j n n k
jk act jk
n n
Z Z
Z Z j n k n
Z
+ +
+ +
= = =
UNIT II

POWER FLOW ANALYSIS
BUS CLASSIFICATION
1.Slack bus or Reference bus or Swing bus:
|V| and are specified. P and Q are un specified, and to be
calculated.

2.Generator bus or PV bus or Voltage controlled bus:
P and |V| are specified. Q and are un specified, and to be
calculated

3.Load bus or PQ bus:
P and Q are specified. |V| and are un specified, and to be
calculated

ITERATIVE METHOD

The above Load flow equations are non linear and
can be solved by following iterative methods.

1.Gauss seidal method
2.Newton Raphson method
3.Fast Decoupled method

1
*
*
1
n
p pq q
q
p p p P p
n
p p
pq q
q
P
I Y V
S P jQ V I
P jQ
Y V
V
=
=
=
= =

GAUSS SEIDAL METHOD
For load bus calculate |V| and from V
p
k+1
equation

For generator bus calculate Q from Q
P
K+1
equation
1
1 * 1
1
1*Im ( )
p
n
k k k k
p P pq q pq q
q q p
Q V Y V Y V
+ +
= =

(

= +
`
(

)

1
1 1
*
1 1
1
( )
p
n
p p
k k k
p pq q pq q
k
q q p
pp P
P jQ
V Y V Y V
Y V
+ +
= = +
(
=
(


Check Q
p,cal
k+1
with the limits of Q
p

If Q
p,cal
k+1
lies within the limits bus p remains as PV bus
otherwise it will change to load bus
Calculate for PV bus from V
p
k+1
equation
Acceleration factor can be used for faster convergence

Calculate change in bus-p voltage

If |V
max
|< , find slack bus power otherwise increase
the iteration count (k)
Slack bus power=

1 1 k k k
p p p
V V V
+ +
A =
G L
S S

NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD
1
1
1
1 2
3 4
cos( )
sin( )
n
i i i j ij ij i j
j
n
i i j ij ij i j
j
n
i i j ij ij i j
j
k sch k
i i i
k sch k
i i i
P Q V V Y
P V V Y
Q V V Y
J J P
J J V Q
P P P
Q Q Q
u o o
u o o
u o o
o
=
=
=
= +
= +
= +
A
( A
| | (
=
( |
(
A A
\ .

A =
A =

Calculate |V| and from the following equation

If

stop the iteration otherwise increase the iteration count (k)

1
1
k k k
i i
k k k
i i i
V V V
o o o
+
+
= + A
= + A
k
i
k
i
P
Q
c
c
A <
A <
FAST DECOUPLED METHOD
J
2
& J
3
of Jacobian matrix are zero

1
4
1
4
'
''
1
'
1
''
0
0
i
i
J P
V J Q
P
P J
Q
Q J V V
V
P
B
V
Q
B V
V
P
B
V
Q
V B
V
o
o o
o
o
o

A
( A | | (
=
( | (
A A
\ .

c
(
A = A = A
(
c

(
c
A = A = A
(
c

A
= A
A
A
= A
A
A
( A =

A
A
( A =

A
1
1
k k k
i i
k k k
i i i
V V V
o o o
+
+
= + A
= + A
This method requires more iterations than NR
method but less time per iteration
It is useful for in contingency analysis

COMPARISION BETWEEN ITERATIVE
METHODS
Gauss Seidal Method
1. Computer memory requirement is less.
2. Computation time per iteration is less.
3. It requires less number of arithmetic operations to
complete an iteration and ease in programming.
4. No. of iterations are more for convergence and rate of
convergence is slow (linear convergence
characteristic.
5. No. of iterations increases with the increase of no. of
buses.

NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD
Superior convergence because of quadratic convergence.
It has an 1:8 iteration ratio compared to GS method.
More accurate.
Smaller no. of iterations and used for large size systems.
It is faster and no. of iterations is independent of the no. of buses.
Technique is difficult and calculations involved in each iteration are
more and thus computation time per iteration is large.
Computer memory requirement is large, as the elements of jacobian
matrix are to be computed in each iteration.
Programming logic is more complex.

FAST DECOUPLED METHOD
It is simple and computationally efficient.
Storage of jacobian matrix elements are60% of NR
method
computation time per iteration is less.
Convergence is geometric,2 to 5 iterations required for
accurate solutions
Speed for iterations is 5 times that of NR method and 2-3
times of GS method

UNIT III

FAULT ANALYSIS-BALANCED FAULT

Need for fault analysis
To determine the magnitude of fault current throughout
the power system after fault occurs.
To select the ratings for fuses, breakers and switchgear.
To check the MVA ratings of the existing circuit breakers
when new generators are added into a system.
BALANCED THREE PHASE FAULT

All the three phases are short circuited to each other and to earth.
Voltages and currents of the system balanced after the symmetrical fault
occurred. It is enough to consider any one phase for analysis.

SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY

It is the product of magnitudes of the prefault voltage
and the post fault current.
It is used to determine the dimension of a bus bar and the
interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker.

Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)
0
2
,1
1
.
,3
3
.
6
3
6
,
/
*10
3* *10
F
T
F
T
b T
T T
p u
b
T
p u
f
L b
SCC V I
V
I
Z
S V
SCC MVA
Z Z
S
SCC MVA
Z
SCC
I
V
|
|
|
|
|
|
=
=
= =
=
=
Procedure for calculating short circuit capacity
and fault current
Draw a single line diagram and select common base S
b

MVA and kV
Draw the reactance diagram and calculate the total p.u
impedance from the fault point to source (Thevenin
impedance Z
T
)
Determine SCC and I
f
ALGORITHM FOR SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
Consider a n bus network. Assume that three phase fault
is applied at bus k through a fault impedance z
f

Prefault voltages at all the buses are

Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit i.e Zeroing all voltage sources
and add voltage source at faulted bus k and draw the reactance
diagram
1
2
(0)
(0)
.
(0)
(0)
.
(0)
bus
k
n
V
V
V
V
V
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(

(0)
k
V
The change in bus voltage due to fault is

The bus voltages during the fault is

The current entering into all the buses is zero.the current entering
into faulted bus k is ve of the current leaving the bus k

1
.
.
.
bus
k
n
V
V
V
V
A
(
(
(
(
A =
(
A
(
(
(
A
(

( ) (0)
bus bus bus
V F V V = + A
11 1 1
1
1
. . 0
. . . . . .
. . ( )
. . . . . .
. . 0
( ) (0) ( )
( ) ( )
(0)
( )
( ) (0) ( )
bus bus bus
k n
bus k kk kn k
n nk nn
k k kk k
k f k
k
k
kk f
i i ik k
V Z I
Z Z Z
V Z Z Z I F
Z Z Z
V F V Z I F
V F Z I F
V
I F
Z Z
V F V Z I F
A =
| | (
| (
| (
|
(
A =
| (
| (
|
(
\ .
=
=
=
+
=
UNIT IV

FAULT ANALYSIS UNBALANCED
FAULTS
INTRODUCTION
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
o One or two phases are involved
o Voltages and currents become unbalanced and each phase is to be
treated individually
o The various types of faults are
Shunt type faults
1.Line to Ground fault (LG)
2. Line to Line fault (LL)
3. Line to Line to Ground fault (LLG)
Series type faults
Open conductor fault (one or two conductor open fault)

FUNDAMENTALS OF SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENTS
Symmetrical components can be used to transform
three phase unbalanced voltages and currents to
balanced voltages and currents
Three phase unbalanced phasors can be resolved into
following three sequences
1.Positive sequence components
2. Negative sequence components
3. Zero sequence components

Positive sequence components
Three phasors with equal magnitudes, equally displaced from one
another by 120
o
and phase sequence is same as that of original
phasors.

Negative sequence components
Three phasors with equal magnitudes, equally displaced from one
another by 120
o
and phase sequence is opposite to that of original
phasors.

Zero sequence components
Three phasors with equal magnitudes and displaced from one another
by 0
o

1 1 1
, ,
a b c
V V V
2 2 2
, ,
a b c
V V V
0 0 0
, ,
a b c
V V V
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNBALANCED VECTORS
AND SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
0 1 2
0 1 2
0 1 2
0
2
1
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
a a a a
b b b b
c c c c
a a
b a
c a
V V V V
V V V V
V V V V
V V
V a a V
a a V V
A a a
a a
= + +
= + +
= + +
( ( | |
| ( (
=
| ( (
|
( (
\ .
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
Similarly we can obtain for currents also
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE
Impedances offered by power system components to positive,
negative and zero sequence currents.
Positive sequence impedance
The impedance of a component when positive sequence
currents alone are flowing.
Negative sequence impedance
The impedance of a component when negative sequence
currents alone are flowing.
Zero sequence impedance
The impedance of a component when zero sequence currents
alone are flowing.

SEQUENCE NETWORK
SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR GENERATOR

positive sequence network
negative sequence network
Zero sequence network
SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR
TRANSMISSION LINE
negative sequence network
Zero sequence network
SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR
TRANSFORMER
negative sequence network Zero sequence network
SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR LOAD
negative sequence network Zero sequence network
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
b
c
f
a a
a1 a2 a0 a
a1
1 2 0
I 0
I 0
V Z I
I I I I / 3
I
3
a
f
E
Z Z Z Z
=
=
=
= = =
=
+ + +
Consider a fault between phase a and
ground through an impedance z
f
LINE TO LINE (LL) FAULT
a2 a1
a0
f
a1 a2 a1
a1
1 2
1 2
I 0
I I
V V I
I I
I 0
V V Z I
I
3
I I
3
a
c b
f
b c b
a
f
a
b c
f
Z
E
Z Z Z
jE
Z Z Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
+ +
= =
+ +
Consider a fault between phase b and c
through an impedance z
f
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND (LLG) FAULT
a0
a1 a2 a0
f
a0
f
a0 a1 a0
a1
1 2 0 2 0
I 0
I I I 0
V =V (I I ) 3Z I
V V V 3Z I
I
( 3 ) / ( 3 )
f
b c b c
b
a
f f
Z
E
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
=
+ + =
= + =
= =
=
+ + + +
Consider a fault between phase b and c
through an impedance z
f
to ground
UNBALANCED FAULT ANALYSIS USING
BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT USING Z
bus

Consider a fault between phase a and ground through
an impedance z
f
at bus k
For a fault at bus k the symmetrical
components of fault current
0 1 2
1 2 0
V (0)
I I I
3
k
k k k
f
kk kk kk
Z Z Z Z
= = =
+ + +
LINE TO LINE (LL) FAULT
Consider a fault between phase b and c through an impedance z
f
0
1 2
1 2
I 0
V (0)
I I
k
k
k k
f
kk kk
Z Z Z
=
= =
+ +
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND (LLG) FAULT
Consider a fault between phase b and c through an impedance z
f
to ground
1
2 0
1
2 0
1 1
2
2
1 1
0
0
V (0)
I
( 3 )
3
V (0) I
I
V (0) I
I
3
I ( ) I I
k
k
f
kk kk
kk
f
kk kk
k kk k
k
kk
k kk k
k
f
kk
b c
k k k
Z Z Z
Z
Z Z Z
Z
Z
Z
Z Z
F
=
+
+
+ +
=
+
= +
BUS VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS
DURING FAULT
0 0 0
1 0 1 1
2 2 2
0 0
0
0
1 1
1
1
2 2
2
2
( ) 0 I
( ) (0) I
( ) 0 I
( ) ( )
I
( ) ( )
I
( ) ( )
I
i ik k
i i ik k
i ik k
i j
ij
ij
i j
ij
ij
i j
ij
ij
V F Z
V F V Z
V F Z
V F V F
Z
V F V F
Z
V F V F
Z
=
=
=
=

UNIT V

STABILITY ANALYSIS
STABILITY
The tendency of a power system to develop restoring
forces equal to or greater than the disturbing forces to
maintain the state of equilibrium.
Ability to keep the machines in synchronism with another
machine

CLASSIFICATION OF STABILITY
Steady state stability
Ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small and
slow disturbances (like gradual power changes)

Dynamic stability
Ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small
disturbances occurring for a long time (like changes in turbine
speed, change in load)

Transient stability
This concern with sudden and large changes in the network
conditions i.e. . sudden changes in application or removal of loads,
line switching operating operations, line faults, or loss of excitation.

Steady state limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred without the system become unstable when
the load in increased gradually under steady state
conditions.

Transient limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred without the system becoming unstable when
a sudden or large disturbance occurs.
Swing Equation for Single Machine Infinite
Bus System
The equation governing the motion of the rotor of a
synchronous machine

where
J=The total moment of inertia of the rotor(kg-m
2
)
=Singular displacement of the rotor
T
m
=Mechanical torque (N-m)
T
e
=Net electrical torque (N-m)
T
a
=Net accelerating torque (N-m)

2
2
m
a m e
d
J T T T
dt
u
= =
m
u

Where p
m
is the shaft power input to the machine
p
e
is the electrical power
p
a
is the accelerating power

2 2
2 2
2
2
m sm m
m m
sm
m m
m
m a m e
t
d d
dt dt
d d
dt dt
d
J p p p
dt
u e o
u o
e
u o
o
e
= +
= +
=
= =
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
0 0
2max 2
2
0
2
2
2
2
2
sin
m
m
a m e
machine
sm
m a m e
sm machine machine
a m e
s
s
a m e
m a
a
J M
d
M p p p
dt
H
M S
d p p p H
dt S S
H d
p p p
dt
f
H d
p p p
f dt
f f d
p p p
dt H H
d
dt
f d d
p
dt H dt
e
o
e
o
e
o
e
e t
o
t
t t o
o
o
e
t e o
=
= =
=
= =
= =
=
= =
= =
= A
A
= =
and
s
are in electrical
radian
p.u
p.u
H=machine inertia constant
Swing Equation for Multimachine System
2
2
system
a m e
machine
system machine
system
H
d
p p p
f dt
S
H H
S
o
t
= =
=
p.u
machine
S
=machine rating(base)
system
S
=system base
Rotor Angle Stability
It is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines
of a power system to maintain in synchronism. The
stability problem involves the study of the electro
mechanical oscillations inherent in power system.
Types of Rotor Angle Stability
1. Small Signal Stability (or) Steady State Stability
2. Transient stability
Voltage Stability
It is the ability of a power system to maintain steady
acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under
normal operating conditions and after being subjected to
a disturbance.
The major factor for instability is the inability of the
power system to meet the demand for reactive power.

Mid Term Stability
It represents transition between short term and long
term responses.
Typical ranges of time periods.
1. Short term : 0 to 10s
2. Mid Term : 10 to few minutes
3. Long Term : a few minutes to 10s of minutes
Long Term Stability
Usually these problem be associated with
1. Inadequacies in equipment responses.
2. Poor co-ordination of control and protection equipment.
3. Insufficient active/reactive power reserves.

Equal Area Criterion
This is a simple graphical method to predict the transient
stability of two machine system or a single machine
against infinite bus. This criterion does not require swing
equation or solution of swing equation to determine the
stability condition.
The stability conditions are determined by equating the
areas of segments on power angle diagram.
Power-angle curve for equal area criterion
multiplying swing equation by on both sides
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by dt and then integrating between two arbitrary angles
0
and
c

Once a fault occurs, the machine starts accelerating. Once the fault is cleared, the
machine keeps on accelerating before it reaches its peak at
c
,
The area of accelerating A1
The area of deceleration is given by A
2

If the two areas are equal, i.e., A
1
= A
2,
then the power system will be stable
Critical Clearing Angle (
cr
) maximum allowable value of the clearing time and angle for
the system to remain stable are known as critical clearing time and angle.

cr
expression can be obtained by substituting
c
=
cr
in the equation A1 = A2
Substituting P
e
= 0 in swing equation

Integrating the above equation

Replacing by
cr
and t by t
cr
in the above equation, we get
the critical clearing time as
Factors Affecting Transient Stability
Strength of the transmission network within the system
and of the tie lines to adjacent systems.
The characteristics of generating units including inertia of
rotating parts and electrical properties such as transient
reactance and magnetic saturation characteristics of the
stator and rotor.
Speed with which the faulted lines or equipments can be
disconnected.

Numerical Integration methods
Modified Eulers method

Runge-Kutta method

MODIFIED EULERS METHOD
Using first derivative of the initial point next point is obtained
the step

Using this x
1
p
dx/dt at x
1
p
=f(t
1,

x
1
p
)
Corrected value is
1 0
p
dX
X X t
dt
= + A
0 1
1
1 0
1
2
2
p
p
i i
X X
P
X X
c
i i
dx dx
dt dt
X X t
dx dx
dt dt
X X t
+
| |
| | | |
+
| | |
\ . \ .
|
= + A
|
|
\ .
| |
| | | |
+
| | |
\ . \ .
|
= + A
|
|
\ .
1 0
t t t = + A
Numerical Solution of the swing equation
Input power p
m
=constant
At steady state p
e
=p
m
,

At synchronous speed

1
0
1max
'
1max
1
sin
m
p
p
E V
p
X
o

| |
=
|
\ .
=
0
'
2max
2
0
E V
p
X
e A =
=
( )
( )
2
2
0
2
0 0
2max
2
2
0
2
sin
a m e
m a
a
H d
p p p
f dt
f f d
p p p
dt H H
d
dt
f d d
p
dt H dt
o
t
t t o
o
o
e
t e o
= =
= =
= A
A
= =
The swing equation
Applying Modified Eulers method to above equation
1 0
t t t = + A
1
1
i
i
p
i i
p
i i
d
t
dt
d
t
dt
e
o
o
o o
e
e e
+
A
+
| |
= + A
|
\ .
A
| |
A = A + A
|
\ .
The derivatives at the end of interval

1
1
1
1
0
p
i
p
p i
i
p
i
a
d
dt
f d
p
dt H
o
e
o
o
e
t e
+
+
+
+
A
| |
= A
|
\ .
A | | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
The corrected value
1
1
1
1
2
2
p
i i
p
i i
c
i i
c
i i
d d
dt dt
t
d d
dt dt
t
e e
o o
o o
o o
e e
e e
+
+
A A
+
+
| |
| | | |
+
| | |
\ . \ .
|
= + A
|
|
\ .
| A A |
| | | |
+
| | |
\ . \ .
|
A = A + A
|
|
\ .
Runge-Kutta Method
Obtain a load flow solution for pretransient conditions
Calculate the generator internal voltages behind transient reactance.
Assume the occurrence of a fault and calculate the reduced admittance matrix
Initialize time count K=0,J=0
Determine the eight constants

1 1
1 2
1 1
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 2
3 1
2 2
3 2
3 3
4 1
3 3
4 2
1 2 3 4
( , )
( , )
( , )
2 2
( , )
2 2
( , )
2 2
( , )
2 2
( , )
2 2
( , )
2 2
2 2
k k k
k k k
k k
k k k
k k
k k k
k k
k k k
k k
k k k
k k
k k k
k k
k k k
k k k
k
K f t
l f t
K l
K f t
K l
l f t
K l
K f t
K l
l f t
K l
K f t
K l
l f t
K K K K
o e
o e
o e
o e
o e
o e
o e
o e
o
= A
= A
= + + A
= + + A
= + + A
= + + A
= + + A
= + + A
+ + +
A =
( )
( )
1 2 3 4
6
2 2
6
k
k k k k
k
l l l l
e
+ + +
A =
Compute the change in state vector

Evaluate the new state vector

Evaluate the internal voltage behind transient reactance using the relation

Check if t<t
c
yes K=K+1
Check if j=0,yes modify the network data and obtain the new reduced
admittance matrix and set j=j+1
set K=K+1
Check if K<Kmax, yes start from finding 8 constants

1
1
k k k
k k k
o o o
e e e
+
+
= +A
= +A
( )
( )
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
2 2
6
2 2
6
k k k k
k
k k k k
k
K K K K
l l l l
o
e
+ + +
A =
+ + +
A =
1 1 1
cos sin
k k k k k
p p p p p
E E j E o o
+ + +
= +

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