FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER

By
Dr. P. KARTHIKEYAN
Faculty from Department of Automobile Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PSG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE 641 0004, INDIA.
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THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER ?
Both are deals with the transfer of energy at thermal equilibrium

Thermodynamics deals with transfer of energy in terms of heat
and work transfer - Conservation of Energy

Heat Transfer: It is the form of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a result of temperature difference

Driving Force - Temperature difference

Modes of heat transfer (Mechanisms) and Rate of heat transfer
(Time taken)
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TRANSFER OF ENERGY ?
How does the energy move from a hotter to a colder
object?

Three mechanisms:

Conduction

Convection

Radiation
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METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
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CONDUCTION
Particles in a solid are always vibrating.
If the solid gets hotter, the particles
vibrate more.
Note: the particles don't swap places, or
move around they just vibrate more on the
spot.
Solids are better at conducting heat than . and
. because their particles are closer together. If the particles
are too spaced out it makes it for the energy to pass
along.
Having said that, some solids conduct heat more than others. Metals
are .. conductors. Non-metals are conductors
(insulators).
Heat energy
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Conduction Con
Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly
through a material, any bulk motion of the material playing no role
in the transfer.
Those materials that conduct heat well are called thermal
conductors, while those that conduct heat poorly are known as
thermal insulators.
Most metals are excellent thermal conductors, while wood, glass,
and most plastics are common thermal insulators.
The free electrons in metals are responsible for the excellent
thermal conductivity of metals.
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Conduction of Heat Through a Material
Rate of heat transfer by conduction, Q/t through the length, L across
the cross-sectional area, A is given by the following equation, where
k is the thermal conductivity and T is the temperature difference
between the two ends. Based on Fourier Law of Heat Conduction,
L
T kA
Q
A
=
SI Unit of Thermal Conductivity: W/( m K)
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Q T
kA
t d
A
=
A
Isotropic and Anisotropic Materials
In some material, the thermal conductivity varies with direction of
heat flow. Isotropic materials have the same thermal conductivity
in all directions. Materials which show different thermal
conductivities in different directions are known as Anisotropic
materials. Examples for anisotropic materials are fiber-reinforced
polymers and woods.
Thermal conductivity for many materials is approximately as a
linear function of temperature for limited temperature ranges
k(T) = ko (1 + |k T)

Q =
1 2
( )
av
k A
T T
L

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Substance Thermal Conductivity, k [J/(s m C)]
Metals
Aluminum 240
Brass 110
Copper 390
Iron 79
Lead 35
Silver 420
Steel (stainless) 14
Gases
Air 0.0256
Hydrogen (H
2
) 0.180
Nitrogen (N
2
) 0.0258
High conductivity
High conductivity
High conductivity
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CONVECTION
When a liquid is heated it becomes less
dense (lighter) so it rises, cold liquid
takes its place.
The same thing happens when air is
heated. The hot air rises and cold air
takes its place.
This heat transfer can happen through liquids
and gases.
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CONVECTION
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Explains why breezes come from the ocean
in the day and from the land at night
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Convective Heat Transfer
Evaluating processes where there is convective heat transferred
to/from a solid surface

External or Internal

Gas or liquid
Two Major Types

Forced Convection: Flow is driven by external force Pump,
Blower and Fan etc.. (Viscous Effect)

Natural Convection: Flow is driven by density difference due to
temperature gradient in the fluid (Buoyancy Effect)

Convective Heat Transfer

Types of Flow Convection
General Approach to Calculating h

Determine Natural or Forced Convection
Collect the appropriate physical data of the fluid:
Thermal conductivity, Viscosity, Prandtl Number
Calculate appropriate dimensionless numbers
Use proper correlations to determine Nu
Calculate h from Nu

Evaluating Physical Properties

Film Temperature - Average between T
sur
and T
amb
- Used for forced
convection, and natural convection
Average Temperature - Average between the two surface temperature
of an enclosure

Nusselt Number = Convective Heat Transfer / Conductive Heat Transfer

Reynolds Number = Inertia Force / Viscous Force

Prandtl Number = Viscous Effect / Diffusion Effect
Forced Convection
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Internal Flows
Combined convection and conduction and overall
heat transfer coefficient
In many engineering systems, heat transfer takes place between two fluids
separated by a wall and the combined heat transfer coefficient is known as overall
heat transfer coefficient.
Combined heat transfer equation is written as

Q = UA (Th Tc)
The overall heat transfer coefficient
U =
1
1 1
h c
L
h k h
(
+ +
(

The radiation heat transfer between two black bodies at
temperatures T1 and T2 is given as
Q1-2 = oA1 F1-2 (T14 T24)
Where F1-2 is the shape or view or configuration factor
which accounts for the fraction of the total radiation
leaving gray surface 1 and reaching the gray surface 2.
For two grey bodies this factor is given by

F12 =

Where c1 and c2 are the emissivities of the two bodies of
surface area A1 and A2 and F12b is the view factor of
two similar black bodies.
As per the reciprocating theorem, A1F12 = A2F21
1
1 12 2 2
1
1 1 1
1 1
b
A
F A c c
( (
+ +
( (


Shape Factor
Properties of Radiation
Thermal radiation is an important concept in
thermodynamics as it is partially responsible for heat
exchange between objects, as warmer bodies radiate more
heat than colder ones.
(Other factors are convection and conduction.) The
interplay of energy exchange is characterized by the
following equation:
+ + =1
Here, represents spectral absorption factor, spectral
reflection factor and spectral transmission factor. All these
elements depend also on the wavelength. The spectral
absorption factor is equal to the emissivity ; this relation is
known as Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation.
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A warm or hot object emit (gives off) infrared radiation as
heat waves, which can be absorbed (taken in) by another
object, heating it up
The weird thing is that the surface colour of an object
makes a difference
Radiation
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Radiation
Energy carried by electromagnetic waves
Light, microwaves, radio waves, x-rays
Wavelength is related to vibration frequency

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Radiation
average frequency absolute temperature
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Black Body
A material that is a good absorber, like
lampblack, is also a good emitter, and a
material that is a poor absorber, like
polished silver, is also a poor emitter.
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Absorption of Radiation
Matt dark surfaces are better
absorbers of infrared radiation than
shiny light surfaces.
Which metal block will heat up quicker?
If you lived in a hot country, would you paint your
house a light colour or a dark colour?
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Emission of Radiation
Matt dark surfaces are better
emitters of infrared radiation than
shiny light surfaces.
Hot soup
62C
Hot soup
62C
Which hot soup cup will lose heat quicker?
If you had a food home delivery business, would you
deliver the hot food in dark coloured containers or
Aluminium foil?
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Summer Clothing
Q: People are uncomfortable wearing dark clothes during the
summer. Why?
A: Dark clothes absorb a large fraction of the sun's radiation and
then reemit it in all directions. About one-half of the emitted
radiation is directed inward toward the body and creates the
sensation of warmth. Light-colored clothes, in contrast, are cooler
to wear, since they absorb and reemit relatively little of the
incident radiation.

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A White Sifaka Lemur
To warm up in the morning, they turn their dark bellies toward
the sun.
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Why is the mother
shielding her cub?
Havent we seen
this before?
Ratio of the surface area
of a cub to its volume is
much larger than for its
mother.
To cool food, we cut it into smaller pieces, why?
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Thermos Bottle
A thermos bottle minimizes energy transfer
due to convection, conduction, and radiation.
Stopper- minimize conduction.
Double-walled glass vessel with the space
between the walls is evacuated to minimize
energy losses due to conduction and
convection.
The silvered surfaces reflect most of the
radiant energy that would otherwise enter or
leave the liquid in the thermos.
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Halogen Cooktop
In a halogen cooktop, quartz-iodine lamps emit a large amount of
electromagnetic energy that is absorbed directly by a pot or pan.
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Highly reflective metal foil covering this satellite minimizes heat
transfer by radiation.
Metal foil
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Classification of heat exchangers

Heat exchanger is a device, whose primary purpose is the transfer of heat
energy between two fluids. Heat exchangers are classified into regenerators,
open-type exchangers and closed-type exchangers or recuperators. The
regenerators are heat exchangers in which the hot and cold fluids flow
alternately through the same space with as little physical mixing between the
two streams as possible.

The Open-type heat exchangers are devices wherein physical mixing of the two
fluid streams actually occurs. Hot and cold fluids enter open-type heat
exchangers and leave as a single stream. The recuperator is a type in which the
hot and cold fluid streams do not come into direct contact with each other but
are separated by a tube wall or a surface.

Heat exchangers are also classified according to the relative directions of the
two streams, parallel flow if the fluids flow in the same direction, counter flow
if the fluids flow in opposite directions and cross flow if the two fluids flow at
right angles to one another.
Indirect contact parallel flow
Indirect contact counter flow
Indirect contact cross flow
Direct contact heat exchanger
Overall heat transfer coefficients for heat exchangers

Types of heat exchanger U[W/(m
2
K)
Gas-to-gas
Water-to-air in finned tubes (water in tubes)
Water-to-oil
Water-to-gasoline or kerosene
Water-to-water
Feedwater heaters
Steam-to-air in finned tubes (steam in tubes)
Steam-to-light fuel oil
Steam-to-heavy fuel oil
Steam condenser
Freon condenser (water cooled)
Ammonia condenser (water cooled)
Alcohol condensers (water cooled)
10 40
30 60
100 350
300 1000
850 1700
1000 8500
30 300
200 400
50 200
1000 6000
300 1000
800 1400
250 700
Temperature profiles in parallel flow heat exchanger
Temperature profiles in counter flow heat exchanger
Log mean temperature difference (LMTD)

The temperatures of hot and cold fluids in a heat exchanger are
generally not constant and vary from entry to exit due to
transfer of heat from the hotter to the colder fluid. Due to the
variation of temperature difference at various sections, the rate
of heat flow vary along the exchanger even for a constant
thermal resistance. Neglecting the heat loss to the surroundings
and potential and kinetic energy change, the general heat
transfer equation for a heat exchanger is
Heat lost by the hot fluid (Qh) = Heat transfer rate in heat
exchanger = Heat gained by the cold fluid (Qc)

mh Cph (Thi- Tho) = UA LMTD = mc Cpc (Tco Tci)
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