Power Electronics for Renewable Energy Systems

Power Electronics systems work in conjunction with renewable energy generation technologies to convert harvested energy into useable electrical power.

The Power Electronics system is designed to convert this harvested energy at the maximum efficiency.

A Power Electronics system is made up of a number of subsystems. The major components will be the Inverter (to deliver the required AC output), Charge Controllers (associated with the methods of energy harvesting used), Energy Storage (generally in the form of a battery bank), Back-up Supply (generator or grid supply) and a Controller to co-ordinate these sub-systems.

System Architecture describes how the various elements of a Power Electronics system are configured.

In this series configuration, generated energy is stored in a battery bank via a common DC bus system. This same DC bus delivers power to the inverter which provides the AC output required
PV Controller
PV Array Battery Charger

Back-up Generator
Wind Charger Wind Generator Power Inverter AC Load

Battery Bank

DC BUS

In the switched configuration, the AC output can be supplied from either the renewable energy source, via the DC bus, or directly from the back-up power source.
PV Controller
PV Array Battery Charger

Back-up Generator
Wind Charger Wind Generator Power Inverter AC Load

Change-over switch

Battery Bank

DC BUS

This parallel configuration, requires no switching of the AC load supply while maintaining flexibility of energy source. The downside is that the power inverter complexity is increased.
PV Controller
PV Array

Back-up Generator
Wind Charger Wind Generator Bidirectional Power Inverter

AC Load

Battery Bank

DC BUS

AC BUS

An alternative parallel configuration eliminates the DC bus completely, combining all power sources and the power output on just an AC bus. In this configuration, each energy source requires its own power inverter.
PV Inverter
PV Array Back-up Generator Wind Inverter Wind Generator Bidirectional Power Inverter Battery Bank

AC Load

AC BUS

The term Micro-Generation is used to describe small-scale renewable energy harvesting by individual houses or small groups of houses. Typically, the capacity of these systems will be from a few KW up to a few 10s of KW.

Micro-Generation systems can be either grid-connected or off-grid.

In an off-grid system, there is no utility network to provide backup power. The system relies entirely on its energy generating capability and its back-up energy storage (battery bank/generator).

The off-grid configuration is most commonly used in remote locations where no access to the utility network is possible.

In a grid-connected system, energy generated is used locally. Surplus generated energy is sold back to the utility service.

If no energy is generated, eg at night, power is taken from the grid in the conventional way. The grid is used as a backup to the micro-generation system and the electronics is required to perform all the control and switching functions.

Inverters
At the centre of the power electronics system is the inverter which takes harvested DC electrical energy and converts it into 240V 50Hz AC suitable for consumer use. Inverters may be sized from a few KW for micro-generation systems to 100s of KW for large-scale installations.

Modern power conversion techniques are based on the high speed switching of power semiconductor transistors.
The full bridge converter is a common topology for generating a single phase AC output. Four semiconductor switches are utilised and are switched in diagonal pairs to direct the output current in alternate directions at high frequency.

High frequency switching strategies use pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques to generate a pseudo-AC output which is reconstructed and smoothed by filtering. Typical PWM switching frequencies are in the range 20 to 100 Khz

DC-DC Conversion
Vin Vout

It is often necessary to convert DC power from one voltage to another, eg to match the DC bus level. There are several topologies commonly used to do this.

DC-DC converters utilise semiconductor switches operating at high speed to charge inductor currents. The inductor energy is then transferred into a storage capacitor, where it is available to be output. The switching frequency of DC-DC converters may be MHz.

The high speed switching techniques employed in power conversion create the need for semiconductor switches and drive circuits capable of operating at high frequency. For topologies where the semiconductor switches are stacked, level shifting techniques are used to drive the high-side switch. MOSFETs and IGBTs are commonly used as the switching elements. The drive circuit must charge and discharge the gate capacitance fast enough to maintain the switching frequency.
Dbs Vs (High Voltage Rail)

Vaux High side Driver

Cbs

M1 D1

PWM

Level shifter

Gate Driver M2 Low side Driver D2

0V

MPP tracking
To extract the maximum energy from harvesting technologies such as PV, the output has to be carefully controlled. There is an optimum operating point on PV characteristics for maximum power output. Maximum Power Point (MPP) tracking maintains this optimum as the PV output characteristics change with temperature and light intensity. MPP tracking ensures that the maximum power is delivered by the energy harvester.

Power Quality
L1 C1

L2

C2

Load

Distortions in AC voltage or current result in power losses. There are limits defining the acceptable level of distortion due to consumer activity.

A common type of distortion is caused by harmonics (multiples of the 50Hz fundamental frequency). The harmonic content can be reduced by active or passive filtering.

Power Factor Correction

Power factor is the ratio of real power to reactive power. Only real power is useful, reactive power is wasted. Capacitive and inductive loads cause poor power factor.
Diode input circuits can severely distort the AC current waveform resulting in poor power factor. Power factor can be corrected electronically to improve system efficiency.

Generators
Generators convert kinetic energy (eg wind, wave etc) into electrical energy.

Common types for renewable energy systems are AC induction generators and DC permanent-magnet generators.

Generators often have an increased number of magnetic poles to provide an acceptable output at low rotational speed.

DC Permanent-magnet generators are lighter and more compact than AC induction generators, but also more expensive.

Smart Metering
There is a great deal of effort currently to transform electricity metering from the simple KWh meter into a much more integrated part of the power system.

Additional functionality may include power quality assessment, variable tariffs (both for usage and regeneration), remote interrogation and more detailed power monitoring maybe even down to individual appliances.

Current predictions place smart metering into a much widerranging power management network. This is potentially a huge growth area.

Hybrid Vehicles
Power electronics also finds applications in hybrid electric vehicles, where many of the power conversion techniques can be applied.
Limitations in large-capacity, small-size electrical energy storage prevent the commercialisation of an allelectric vehicle. However, hybrid vehicles, which use electric motors in tandem with combustion fuels like petrol or even hydrogen, are emerging.

Probably the best known of these hybrids is the Toyota Prius. Its commercial success demonstrates the market for such vehicles.

The continued development of hybrid technology is another potentially huge growth area.

Semiconductor and Circuit Modelling

Power circuit performance can be extensively analysed using circuit simulators. Simulator accuracy and functionality continue to improve and circuit simulation is an increasingly important technique for performance evaluation and to improve reliability.

Semiconductor device simulation models make it possible to analyse individual components within a power circuit. Compact models provide rapid simulation times while maintaining accuracy of simulation results.

Electro-thermal compact models simulate device temperatures in parallel with electrical characteristics. Elevated temperature is one of the major causes of device failure, so this is a useful technique for improving reliability.

Power Integration
CMOS Collector

V D =0-(-3)V

V C =+5V IC

S
n+
P bo dy

G
N -drift

D
n+

P1
N -well P+

ND
n+

MAA P

P2
n+

N -well P+

P-epi

P-epi

P-epi

Psub

Advances in isolation structure technology are enabling more and more power circuitry to be integrated with the control and processing functions on a single silicon chip. This is an important growth area with potential benefits of reduced size and weight, reduced complexity, increased functionality and improved reliability.

Reliability
Reliability is an important issue for all products and technologies, particularly for renewable energy systems which will be expected to perform faultlessly for many years.

The equipment may be sited in a remote or inaccessible location, making maintenance and repair difficult. Or it may be subject to a harsh environment being attacked by salt water spray or high temperatures.

To maintain manufacturing quality and ensure optimum reliability, monitoring systems based on feedback loops are employed. There may be many such loops throughout the manufacturing process. Of course, the installer and operator must also ensure that the equipment is not subject to environmental conditions or operating stresses which exceed the manufacturers specifications.

Power Electronics modules developed for the WEST project address the challenges raised by renewable energy systems.

Module 1

Power Electronics Systems.

Module 2
Module 3

Power Integrated Circuits

Project

Module 1

Power Electronics Systems.

System architecture. Power conversion. ACDC DCDC DCAC. Filters, harmonics & power factor correction. Energy harvesting. Power device drive techniques. Thermal considerations. Smart metering. Reliability.

Module 2

Power Integrated Circuits

Power device topologies. Power device modelling strategies. Electro-thermal compact models. Power integration. Isolation techniques. Power IC applications. Advanced devices and technologies.

Module 3

Project

A hands-on Power Electronics project designed to give an insight into the design of Power Electronics circuits. The project requires the student to : Modify an existing design to meet a specific requirement. Re-design the circuit and specify appropriate components for the new design. Test and verify the circuit operation, measuring important circuit parameters. Write a report detailing their new design.