Thermal Behavior of Materials

ME 2105
Dr. R. Lindeke
Some Definitions
Heat Capacity: the amount of heat (energy)
required to raise a fundamental quantity of a
material 1 K
The quantity is usually set at 1 gm-atom (elements) or 1
gm-mole (compounds)
Given by the formula: C = q/(mAT) in units of J/gm-
atom* K or J/gm-mole* K
Specific Heat: a measure of the amount of
heat energy to raise a specific mass of a
material 1 K
Heat Capacity
Heat capacity is reported in 1 of two ways:
C
v
the heat capacity when a constant volume of
material is considered
C
p
the heat capacity when a constant pressure is
maintained while higher than C
v
these values are nearly
equal for most materials
C
p
is most common in engineering applications (heat
stored or needed at 1 atm of pressure)
At temperature above the Debye Temperature C
v
~ 3R ~
C
p
Definitions
Thermal Expansion is the growth of materials due to
increasing vibration leading to larger inter-atomic distances
and increasing vacancy counts for materials as temperature
increases
Thermal Expansion
Linear thermal expansion is given by this
model:



As an Example:
A gold ring (diameter = 12.5 mm) is worn by a person,
they are asked to wash the dishes at their apartment
water temperature is 50C how big is the ring while it
is submerged?
dL
LdT
o =
Thermal Expansion is
Temperature Dependent
Solving:
( )
0
0 0
50 27 50
50
527 27
6
50
6
0
data from table 7.2
* 12.5*3.14159 39.2699
14.1
16.5 14.1
14.21 10 (mm/mm C )
14.21*10 *39.27*12.5 0.007
39.27 .007
12.502
avg
f
L L T
L d
x
L L T mm
D mm
o
t
o o o
o
o o
o
o
t

A = A
= = =

=

~
A = A = =
+
~ =
Definition:
Thermal
Conductivity: the
transfer of heat
energy through a
material (analogous
to diffusion of mass)


Modeled by:

( )
( )
at steady state conditions:
dQ
dt
k
dT
A
dx
Q
t
k
T
A
x
=
A
A
=
A
A
Note, k is a function of temperature (like o was)
Modeling Fouriers Law of Thermal Conduction (heat
flow thru a bounded area)
Thermal Conductivity
Involves two primary (atomic level) mechanisms:
Atomic vibrations in ceramics and polymers this dominates
Conduction by free electrons in metals this dominates
Focusing on Metals:
thermal conductivity decreases as temperature increases
since atomic vibrations disrupt the primary free electron
conduction mechanism
Adding alloying impurities also disrupts free electron
conduction so alloys are less conductive than pure metals
Thermal Conductivity
Focusing on Ceramics and Polymers:
Atomic/lattice vibrations are wave-like in nature and
impeded by structural disorder
Thermal conductivity will, thus, drop with increasing
temperature
In some ceramics, which are transparent to IR radiation,
TC will eventually rise at elevated temperatures since radiant
heat transfer will begin to dominate mechanical
conduction
Porosity level has a dramatic effect on TC (pores are filled
with low TC gases which limits overall TC for a structure
(think fiberglass insulation and strya-foam cups)
And Continuing:
Thermal conductivity of several ceramics over a range
of temperatures.
(From W. D. Kingery, H. K.
Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann,
Introduction to Ceramics,
2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, 1976.)
Definition:
Thermal Shock: it is simply defined as the fracture of a
material (often a brittle ceramic) as the result of a
(sudden) temperature change and is dependent on the
interplay of the two material behaviors: thermal
expansion and thermal conductivity
Thermal Shock can be explained in one of two ways:
Failure stress can be built up by constrained thermal expansion
Rapid temperature changes lead to internal temperature gradients
and internal residual stresses based in finite thermal conductivity
reasoning

By Constrained Thermal Expansion:
Thermal shock resulting from constraint of uniform thermal expansion. This
process is equivalent to: a. free expansion followed by; b. mechanical compression
back to the original length.
Lets Consider an Example:
A 400 mm long rod of Stabilized ZrO
2
(o =
4.7x10
-6
mm/mmC) is subject to a thermal
cycle in a ceramic engine its the crank
shaft! from RT (25C) to 800C. Determine
the induced stress and determine if it is likely
to fail?
E for Stabilized ZrO
2
is 150 GPa
MOR for Stabilized ZrO
2
is 83 MPa
( )
exp
0
6
where:
4.7*10 * 800 25 0.00364
150 *0.00364 0.546 546
TI TI
T
TI
TI
TI
E
l
l
mm
T
mm
mm
GPa GPa MPa
mm
o c
c
c o
o

=
A
=
= A = =
= = =
Since the Inducted Compressive Stress exceeds the MOR one might expect the
rod to fail or rupture unless it is allowed to expand into a designed in
pocket built into the engine block to accept the shafts expansion
By Thermal Conductivity (induced)Temperature
Gradients:
Thermal shock resulting from temperature gradients created by a finite thermal conductivity.
Rapid cooling produces surface tensile stresses and Griffith Crack Generation.
Thermal quenches that produce failure by thermal shock are illustrated. The temperature drop
necessary to produce fracture (T
0
T) is plotted against a heat-transfer parameter (r
m
h). More
important than the values of r
m
h are the regions corresponding to given types of quench (e.g.,
water quench corresponds to an r
m
h around 0.2 to 0.3).
(From W. D. Kingery, H. K.
Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann,
Introduction to Ceramics, 2nd
ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1976.)
22
Occurs due to: uneven heating/cooling.
Ex: Assume top thin layer is rapidly cooled from T
1
to T
2
:
Tension develops at surface
) (
2 1
T T E o = o
Critical temperature difference
for fracture (set o = o
f
)
o
o
=
E
T T
f
fracture 2 1
) (
set equal
Large thermal shock resistance when is large.
o
o
E
k
f
Result:
o
o

E
k
f
fracture for
rate) (quench
Thermal Shock Resistance
Temperature difference that
can be produced by cooling:
k
T T
rate quench
) (
2 1
=
o
rapid quench
resists contraction
tries to contract during cooling
T
2

T
1

Thermal Shock Resistance Parameter
f
l
k
TSR
E
o
o
=
Where:
o
f
is fracture strength of a material
o
l
is coeff. Of linear thermal expansion
k is thermal conductivity of material
E is modulus of elasticity