BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

ADDITIONAL TOPICS

LIE DETECTION: THE SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLYGRAPH

The idea of using a polygraph for lie detection emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. Despite major technological advances in the twentieth century, the polygraph has evolved little since its invention. The polygraph works under the assumption that lies can be detected by certain measurable physiological changes, a theory proposed more than 100 years ago. The three physiological vectors measured in polygraphs in the 1920s cardiovascular, respirator y and perspiratory activities are still measured by modern polygraphs. Although the polygraph is still widely used, critics question its accuracy because of the subjectivity involved in the test. Recent technological breakthroughs have created new machines for lie detection.

DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS IN MODERN POLYGRAPHS

Of the three physiological signs recorded in modern polygraphs, cardiovascular activity was the first sign to be associated with lying. This association was first documented by an Italian criminologist named Lombroso in the late nineteenth century. Lombroso noted an increase in a subject's blood pressure and heart rate when the subject was giving untruthful answers. In the 1910s, some studies suggested that the ratio of inhaling and exhaling time during breathing changes when a person lies. Using this theory along with Lombroso's findings, John Larson, a medical student working for the Berkeley Police Department, invented the first polygraph in 1921 . This first polygraph simultaneously traced a subject's blood pressure and respiration. Under Larson's assumptions, irregularities in blood pressure and breathing patterns would indicate lies.

DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS IN MODERN POLYGRAPHS

The third physiological channel used in modern polygraphs "skin resistance" was added later in the 1920s by Leonarde Keeler. Keeler assumed that a lying person would sweat more than a truthful person, which would decrease skinresistance due to a higher concentration of negatively charged chloride ions on the surface of the skin. By adding an extra metric for detecting lies, scientists had hoped to decrease the probability of errors in the polygraph test. Since this addition, there have been no new underlying assumptions introduced to improve the polygraph.

RECENT POLYGRAPH DESIGNS

Technological breakthroughs in past decades have improved the retrieval and analysis of data obtained from a subject during a polygraph. However, the fundamental assumptions behind the polygraph and the parameters measured have not changed in over eighty years. For example, in the 1970s and 80s, the analog polygraph was used. With advances in computer programming in the 1990s, most modern polygraphs are administered through computers. The development of sophisticated software has allowed signals to be displayed on computer monitors, which allows examiners to identify irregularities more ef ficiently.

THE MODERN POLYGRAPH

Despite its name, the lie detector, also known as the polygraph, is not capable of detecting lies. The device can only display certain physiological signs that are assumed to reflect the psychological state of a liar. For example, the modern day polygraph displays measurements of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and perspiration in the figure.

 When a person lies or is asked a sensitive question, his or her heart may begin to race, raising the body's blood pressure. The test subject may also hold his or her breath, take in a deep breath, or begin to sweat. These physiological irregularities are detected by the polygraph and interpreted by the polygraph examiner. It is the province of the examiner to decide whether or not sudden changes in the data signify dishonesty. The assumptions that lying will produce physiological changes and that polygraph examiners will be able to interpret these signs accurately have raised questions about the accuracy of the polygraph. What if a test subject does not exhibit abnormal physiological signs while lying? Can human errors occur in the polygraph interpretation process? Indeed, polygraph testing is not an exact science, and there is certainly margin for error in the interpretation of the three metrics.

MEASUREMENTS
Blood Pressure and Heart Rate Data Blood pressure and heart rate data are collected by an armencircling cuf f placed on the upper arm. The cuf f is filled with air and connected to the polygraph machine through air-filled tubes. Changes in blood pressure modulates the air pressure in the cuff. These changes are recorded by the polygraph machine and displayed on a computer screen. This data is simultaneously displayed with respiratory and perspiratory data on a computer monitor, and all are interpreted by the polygraph examiner.

MEASUREMENTS
Respiratory Data The respiration pattern of the subject is detected by two pneumograph, devices which record thoracic movements, or volume change during respiration. One of the pneumograph tubes is strapped around the chest and the other is placed around the abdomen. Each pneumograph has an air-filled rubber tube connected to the machine. When the subject breathes in and out, the air pressure inside the tubing changes and is recorded by the polygraph machine.

MEASUREMENTS
Perspiratory Data The measurement of sweat, which is scientifically known as the measurement of galvanic skin resistance, is conducted by a twopiece galvanometer attached to two of the subject's fingertips. The galvanometer works by sending a small electric current into the skin from one of the fingerplates and records how much current was allowed to pass through on the other fingerplate. Dry skin is not a very good conductor of electricity. If a subject perspires, however, the water and salt from the sweat reduces the resistance of the skin. This decrease in resistance allows a larger amount of electric current to travel along the surface of the skin. Therefore, the amount of electric current recorded by the galvanometer reflects the amount of sweat that was produced in the subject's fingertips.

NEW TECHNOLOGIES
There are new technologies that can be used for lie detection. One is the facial thermal imaging, a technology that maps facial blood flow. When a person lies, he or she often becomes anxious and excessive blood flows to areas around the eyes. This blood flow can be detected by a thermal imaging screener. Lasers have been developed to detect muscular, circulatory, and other bodily changes assumed to be associated with the anxiety of lying. Some computer programs claim the ability to detect lies by analyzing the voice and tone of a speaker.

NEW TECHNOLOGIES
According to their inventors, "when a person lies, an involuntary interference of the nerves causes the vocal cords to produce a distorted sound wave, namely a frequency level which is different from the one produced by the same person when telling the truth". One company has even developed a lie-detecting keyboard, which is claimed to be able to detect lies when a person types into a computer by analyzing typing patterns, sensing moisture in fingertips, recording body heat, and monitoring how fast the fingers were moving when they hit the keyboard.

CONCLUSION
The polygraph is a device that seeks to accurately and reliably detect lies - an ability that humans have sought to develop throughout the centuries. However, due to its inherently subjective nature, the use of the polygraph is surrounded with controversy. Regardless, the polygraph does serve as an instructive tool for government authorities and law enforcement agencies. With technological advancements, humans will be able to better correlate the psychological state of lying with physiological responses.

REFERENCES
http://illumin.usc.edu/43/lie-detection-thescience-and-development-of-the-polygraph/