Antennaswaveprofrenzel 121121205103 Phpapp01

1
Principles of Electronic Communication Systems

Third Edition Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.
2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
Chapter 14
Antennas and Wave Propagation
Topics Covered in Chapter 14

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals 14-2: Common Antenna Types
14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

The interface between the transmitter and free space
and between free space and the receiver is the antenna. At the transmitting end the antenna converts the transmitter RF power into electromagnetic signals; at the receiving end the antenna picks up the electromagnetic signals and converts them into signals for the receiver.

Radio Waves
A radio signal is called an electromagnetic wave
because it is made up of both electric and magnetic fields. Whenever voltage is applied to the antenna, an electric field is set up. This voltage causes current to flow in the antenna, producing a magnetic field. These fields are emitted from the antenna and propagate through space at the speed of light.

Radio Waves: Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is an invisible force field created by a
magnet. An antenna is a type of electromagnet. A magnetic field is generated around a conductor when current flows through it. The strength and direction of the magnetic field depend upon the magnitude and direction of the current flow. The SI unit for magnetic field strength is ampere-turns per meter.
Figure 14-1: Magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor. Magnetic field strength H in ampere-turns per meter = H = I I(2 d). 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Radio Waves: Electric Field
An electric field is an invisible force field produced by
the presence of a potential difference between two conductors. For example, an electric field is produced between the plates of a charged capacitor. An electric field exists between any two points across which a potential difference exists. The SI unit for electric field strength is volts per meter. Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material between the two conductors.
Figure 14-2: Electric field across the plates of a capacitor. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Radio Waves: Magnetic and Electric Fields in a Transmission Line
At any given time in a two-wire transmission line, the
wires have opposite polarities. During one-half cycle of the ac input, one wire is positive and the other is negative. During the negative half-cycle, the polarity reverses. The direction of the electric field between the wires reverses once per cycle. The direction of current flow in one wire is always opposite that in the other wire. Therefore, the magnetic fields combine.
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Radio Waves: Magnetic and Electric Fields in a Transmission Line
A transmission line is made up of a conductor or
conductors. Transmission lines do not radiate signals efficiently. The closeness of the conductors keeps the electric field concentrated in the transmission line dielectric. The magnetic fields mostly cancel one another. The electric and magnetic fields do extend outward from the transmission line, but the small amount of radiation that does occur is extremely inefficient.
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Figure 14-3: (a) Magnetic and electric fields around a transmission line. (b) Electric field. (c) Magnetic fields. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Antenna Operation: The Nature of an Antenna
If a parallel-wire transmission line is left open, the
electric and magnetic fields escape from the end of the line and radiate into space. This radiation is inefficient and unsuitable for reliable transmission or reception. The radiation from a transmission line can be greatly improved by bending the transmission-line conductors so they are at a right angle to the transmission line.
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Antenna Operation: The Nature of an Antenna
The magnetic fields no longer cancel; they now aid one
another. The electric field spreads out from conductor to conductor. Optimum radiation occurs if the segment of transmission wire converted into an antenna is one quarter wavelength long at the operating frequency. This makes an antenna that is one-half wavelength long.
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Figure 14-5: Converting a transmission line into an antenna. (a) An open transmission line radiates a little. (b) Bending the open transmission line at right angles creates an efficient radiation pattern. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Antenna Operation
The ratio of the electric field strength of a radiated wave
to the magnetic field strength is a constant and is called the impedance of space, or the wave impedance. The electric and magnetic fields produced by the antenna are at right angles to one another, and are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
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Antenna Operation
Antennas produce two sets of fields, the near field and
the far field. The near field describes the region directly around the antenna where the electric and magnetic fields are distinct. The far field is approximately 10 wavelengths from the antenna. It is the radio wave with the composite electric and magnetic fields. Polarization refers to the orientation of magnetic and electric fields with respect to the earth.
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Antenna Reciprocity
Antenna reciprocity means that the characteristics
and performance of an antenna are the same whether the antenna is radiating or intercepting an electromagnetic signal. A transmitting antenna takes a voltage from the transmitter and converts it into an electromagnetic signal. A receiving antenna has a voltage induced into it by the electromagnetic signal that passes across it.
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The Basic Antenna
An antenna can be a length of wire, a metal rod, or a
piece of tubing. Antennas radiate most effectively when their length is directly related to the wavelength of the transmitted signal. Most antennas have a length that is some fraction of a wavelength. One-half and one-quarter wavelengths are most common.
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14-2: Common Antenna Types

The Dipole Antenna
One of the most widely used antenna types is the half-
wave dipole. The half-wave dipole, also called a doublet, is formally known as the Hertz antenna. A dipole antenna is two pieces of wire, rod, or tubing that are one-quarter wavelength long at the operating resonant frequency. Wire dipoles are supported with glass, ceramic, or plastic insulators at the ends and middle.
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Figure 14-10: The dipole antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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The Dipole Antenna
The dipole has an impedance of 73 at its center,
which is the radiation resistance. An antenna is a frequency-sensitive device. To get the dipole to resonate at the frequency of operation, the physical length must be shorter than the one-half wavelength computed by = 492/f. Actual length is related to the ratio of length to diameter, conductor shape, Q, the dielectric (when the material is other than air), and a condition known as end effect.
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The Dipole Antenna
End effect is a phenomenon caused by any support
insulators used at the ends of the wire antenna and has the effect of adding capacitance to the end of each wire. The actual antenna length is only about 95 percent of the computed length. If a dipole is used at a frequency different from its design frequency, the SWR rises and power is lost.
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The Dipole Antenna: Antenna Q and Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is determined by the
frequency of operation and the Q of the antenna according to the relationship BW = fr/Q. The higher the Q, the narrower the bandwidth. For an antenna, low Q and wider bandwidth are desirable so that the antenna can operate over a wider range of frequencies with reasonable SWR. In general, any SWR below 2:1 is considered good in practical antenna work.
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The Dipole Antenna: Antenna Q and Bandwidth
The Q and thus the bandwidth of an antenna are
determined by the ratio of the length of the conductor to the diameter of the conductor. Bandwidth is sometimes expressed as a percentage of the resonant frequency of the antenna. A small percentage means a higher Q, and a narrower bandwidth means a lower percentage.
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The Dipole Antenna: Conical Antennas
A common way to increase bandwidth is to use a
version of the dipole antenna known as the conical antenna. The center radiation resistance of a conical antenna is much higher than the 73 usually found when straightwire or tubing conductors are used. The primary advantage of conical antennas is their tremendous bandwidth. They can maintain a constant impedance and gain over a 4:1 frequency range.
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Figure 14-14: The conical dipole and its variation. (a) Conical antenna. (b) Broadside view of conical dipole antenna (bow tie antenna) showing dimensions. (c) Open-grill bow tie antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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The Dipole Antenna: Dipole Polarization
Most half-wave dipole antennas are mounted
horizontally to the earth. This makes the electric field horizontal to the earth and the antenna is horizontally polarized. Horizontal mounting is preferred at the lower frequencies because the physical construction, mounting, and support are easier. This mounting makes it easier to attach the transmission line and route it to the transmitter or receiver.
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The Dipole Antenna: Radiation Pattern and Directivity
The radiation pattern of any antenna is the shape of
the electromagnetic energy radiated from or received by that antenna. Most antennas have directional characteristics that cause them to radiate or receive energy in a specific direction. The radiation is concentrated in a pattern that has a recognizable geometric shape. The measure of an antennas directivity is beam width, the angle of the radiation pattern over which a transmitters energy is directed or received.
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Figure 14-15: Three-dimensional pattern of a half-wave dipole. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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The Dipole Antenna: Antenna Gain
A directional antenna can radiate more power in a given
direction than a nondirectional antenna. In this favored direction, it acts as if it had gain. Antenna gain of this type is expressed as the ratio of the effective radiated output power Pout to the input power Pin.
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The Dipole Antenna: Antenna Gain
Effective radiated power is the actual power that would
have to be radiated by a reference antenna (usually a nondirectional or dipole antenna) to produce the same signal strength at the receiver as the actual antenna produces. The power radiated by an antenna with directivity and therefore gain is called the effective radiated power (ERP). ERP = ApPt
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The Dipole Antenna: Folded Dipole
A popular variation of the half-wave dipole is the folded
dipole. The folded dipole is also one-half wavelength long. It consists of two parallel conductors connected at the ends with one side open at the center for connection to the transmission line. The impedance of this antenna is 300 . Folded dipoles usually offer greater bandwidth than standard dipoles. The folded dipole is an effective, low-cost antenna that can be used for transmitting and receiving.
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Figure 14-18: Folded dipole. (a) Basic configuration. (b) Construction with twin lead. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
The one-quarter wavelength vertical antenna, also
called a Marconi antenna, is widely used.

It is similar in operation to a vertically mounted dipole
antenna.
The Marconi antenna offers major advantages because
it is half the length of a dipole antenna.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna: Radiation Pattern
Vertical polarization and omnidirectional
characteristics can be achieved using a one-quarter wavelength vertical radiator. This antenna is called a Marconi or ground-plane antenna. It is usually fed with coaxial cable; the center conductor is connected to the vertical radiator and the shield is connected to earth ground. The earth then acts as a type of electrical mirror, providing the other one-quarter wavelength making it equivalent to a vertical dipole.
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Figure 14-20: Ground-plane antenna. (a) One-quarter wavelength vertical antenna. (b) Using radials as a ground plane. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna: Ground Plane, Radials, and Counterpoise
When a good electrical connection to the earth has
been made, the earth becomes what is known as a ground plane. If a ground plane cannot be made to earth, an artificial ground can be constructed of several onequarter wavelength wires laid horizontally on the ground or buried in the earth. These horizontal wires at the base of the antenna are called radials, and the collection of radials is called a counterpoise.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna: Antenna Length
For many applications, e.g., with portable or mobile
equipment, it is not possible to make the antenna a full one-quarter wavelength long. To overcome this problem, shorter antennas are used, and lumped electrical components are added to compensate for the shortening.
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Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna: Antenna Length
The practical effect of this design is a decreased
inductance. The antenna no longer resonates at the desired operating frequency, but at a higher frequency. To compensate for this, a series inductor, called a loading coil, is connected in series with the antenna coil. The loading coil brings the antenna back into resonance at the desired frequency.
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Figure 14-22: Using a base leading coil to increase effective antenna length. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Directivity Directivity refers to an antennas ability to send or receive signals over a narrow horizontal directional range. The physical orientation of the antenna gives it a highly directional response or directivity curve. A directional antenna eliminates interference from other signals being received from all directions other than the desired signal.
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Directivity A highly directional antenna acts as a type of filter to provide selectivity. Directional antennas provide greater efficiency of power transmission.
Directivity, because it focuses the power, causes the
antenna to exhibit gain, which is one form of amplification.
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Figure 14-25: Radiation pattern of a highly directional antenna with gain. (a) Horizontal radiation pattern. (b) Three-dimensional radiation pattern. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Directivity
To create an antenna with directivity and gain, two or more antenna elements are combined to form an array. Two basic types of antenna arrays are used to achieve gain and directivity: 1. Parasitic arrays. 2. Driven arrays.
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Parasitic Arrays
A parasitic array consists of a basic antenna
connected to a transmission line plus one or more additional conductors that are not connected to the transmission line. These extra conductors are referred to as parasitic elements and the antenna is called a driven element. A Yagi antenna is made up of a driven element and one or more parasitic elements.
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Figure 14-26: A parasitic array known as a Yagi antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Driven Arrays
A driven array is an antenna that has two or more
driven elements. Each element receives RF energy from the transmission line. Different arrangements of the elements produce different degrees of directivity and gain. The three basic types of driven arrays are the collinear, the broadside, and the end-fire. A fourth type is the wide-bandwidth log-periodic antenna.
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Driven Arrays: Collinear Antenna
Collinear antennas usually consist of two or more half-
wave dipoles mounted end to end. Collinear antennas typically use half-wave sections separated by shorted quarter-wave matching stubs which ensure that the signals radiated by each halfwave section are in phase. Collinear antennas are generally used only on VHF and UHF bands because their length becomes prohibited at the lower frequencies.
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Figure 14-29: Radiation pattern of a four-element collinear antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Driven Arrays: Broadside Antenna
A broadside array is a stacked collinear antenna
consisting of half-wave dipoles spaced from one another by one-half wavelengths. This antenna produces a highly directional radiation pattern that is broadside or perpendicular to the plane of the array. The broadside antenna is bidirectional in radiation, but the radiation pattern has a very narrow beam width and high gain.
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Figure 14-30: A broadside array. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Driven Arrays: End-Fire Antenna
The end-fire array uses two half-wave dipoles spaced
one-half wavelength apart. The end-fire array has a bidirectional radiation pattern, but with narrower beam widths and lower gain. The radiation is in the plane of the driven elements. A highly unidirectional antenna can be created by careful selection of the optimal number of elements with the appropriately related spacing.
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Figure 14-31: End-fire antennas. (a) Bidirectional. (b) Unidirectional. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Driven Arrays: Log-Periodic Antennas
A special type of driven array is the wide-bandwidth
log-periodic antenna. The lengths of the driven elements vary from long to short and are related logarithmically. The spacing is also variable. The great advantage of the log-periodic antenna over a Yagi or other array is its very wide bandwidth. The driving impedance is constant over this range. Most TV antennas in use today are of the log-periodic variety so that they can provide high gain and directivity on both VHF and UHF TV channels.
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Figure 14-32: Log-periodic antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Impedance Matching
One of the most critical aspects of any antenna system
is ensuring maximum power transfer from the transmitter to the antenna. When the characteristic impedance of the transmission line matches the output impedance of the transmitter and the impedance of the antenna, the SWR will be 1:1. When SWR is 1:1, maximum power transfer will take place.
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Impedance Matching
A Q section, or matching stub, is a one-quarter
wavelength of coaxial or balanced transmission line of a specific impedance that is connected between a load and source and is used to match impedances. A balun is a transformer used to match impedances. An antenna tuner is a variable inductor, one or more variable capacitors, or a combination of these components connected in various configurations.
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Figure 14-33: A one-quarter wavelength matching stub or Q section. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Figure 14-34: A bifilar toroidal balun for impedance matching. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Figure 14-36: An antenna tuner. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Once a radio signal has been radiated by an antenna,
it travels or propagates through space and ultimately reaches the receiving antenna. The energy level of the signal decreases rapidly with distance from the transmitting antenna. The electromagnetic wave is affected by objects that it encounters along the way such as trees, buildings, and other large structures. The path that an electromagnetic signal takes to a receiving antenna depends upon many factors, including the frequency of the signal, atmospheric conditions, and time of day.
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Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves
Radio waves act much like light waves. Light waves can be reflected, refracted, diffracted, and
focused by other objects.

The focusing of waves by antennas to make them more
concentrated in a desired direction is comparable to a lens focusing light waves into a narrower beam.
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Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves: Reflection
Any conducting surface looks like a mirror to a radio
wave, and so radio waves are reflected by any conducting surface they encounter. Radio-wave reflection follows the principles of lightwave reflection. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. The direction of the electric field approaching the reflecting surface is reversed from that leaving the surface. This is equivalent to a 180 phase shift.
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Figure 14-37: How a conductive surface reflects a radio wave. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves: Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a wave due to the physical
makeup of the medium through which the wave passes. Index of refraction is obtained by dividing the speed of a light (or radio) wave in a vacuum and the speed of a light (or radio) wave in the medium that causes the wave to be bent.
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Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves: Refraction
The relationship between the angles and the indices of
refraction is given by a formula known as Snells law: n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 where n1 = index of refraction of initial medium n2 = index of refraction of medium into which wave passes 1 = angle of incidence 2 = angle of refraction
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Figure 14-38: How a change in the index of refraction causes bending of a radio wave. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves: Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of waves around an object. Diffraction is explained by Huygens principle: Assuming that all electromagnetic waves radiate as
spherical waveforms from a source, each point on a wave front can be considered as a point source for additional spherical waves. When the waves encounter an obstacle, they pass around it, above it, and on either side. As the wave front passes the object, the point sources of waves at the edge of the obstacle create additional spherical waves that penetrate and fill in the shadow zone.
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Figure 14-39: Diffraction causes waves to bend around obstacles. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space
The three basic paths that a radio signal can take
through space are: Ground wave Sky wave Space wave
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Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space: Ground Waves
Ground or surface waves leave an antenna and
remain close to the earth. Ground waves actually follow the curvature of the earth and can travel at distances beyond the horizon. Ground waves must have vertical polarization to be propagated from an antenna. Ground-wave propagation is strongest at the low- and medium-frequency ranges. AM broadcast signals are propagated primarily by ground waves during the day and by sky waves at night.
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Figure 14-40: Ground or surface wave radiation from an antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space: Sky Waves
Sky-wave signals are radiated by the antenna into the
upper atmosphere, where they are bent back to earth. When a radio signal goes into the ionosphere, the different levels of ionization cause the radio waves to be gradually bent. The smaller the angle with respect to the earth, the more likely it is that the waves will be refracted and sent back to earth. The higher the frequency, the smaller the radiation angle required for refraction to occur.
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Figure 14-41: Sky wave propagation. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Radio-Wave Propagation Through Space: Space Waves
A direct wave, or space wave, travels in a straight line
directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. Direct-wave radio signaling is often referred to as line-ofsight communication. Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they follow the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight communication is characteristic of most radio signals with a frequency above 30 MHz, particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
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Figure 14-42: Line-of-sight communication by direct or space waves. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
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Repeater stations extend the communication distance at
VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies. A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter operating on separate frequencies. The receiver picks up a signal from a remote transmitter, amplifies it, and retransmits it (on another frequency) to a remote receiver. Repeaters are widely used to increase the communication range for mobile and handheld radio units.
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In a trunked repeater system, multiple repeaters are
under the control of a computer system that can transfer a user from an assigned but busy repeater to another, available repeater, thus spreading the communication load. Communication satellites act as fixed repeater stations. The receiver-transmitter combination within the satellite is known as a transponder.
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Common Propagation Problems: Fading
Fading is the variation in signal amplitude at the receiver caused by the characteristics of the signal path and changes in it. Fading typically makes the received signal smaller. Fading is caused by four factors:
1. Variation in distance between transmitter and receiver. 2. Changes in the environmental characteristics of the
signal path. 3. The presence of multiple signal paths. 4. Relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.
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Common Propagation Problems: Diversity System
A diversity system uses multiple transmitters,
receivers, or antennas to mitigate the problems caused by multipath signals. With frequency diversity, two separate sets of transmitters and receivers operating on different frequencies are used to transmit the same information simultaneously. Space or spatial diversity uses two receive antennas spaced as far apart as possible to receive the signals.

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1

Principles of Electronic Communication Systems

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Antennas and Wave Propagation

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Topics Covered in Chapter 14

14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-1: Antenna Fundamentals

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

Figure 14-10: The dipole antenna. 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types

called a Marconi antenna, is widely used.

it is half the length of a dipole antenna.

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types

14-2: Common Antenna Types