Chapter: Digital Modulation

Techniques
1

Introduction Digital Modulation

Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.
A carrier signal (frequency f
c
) performs the function
of transporting the digital data in an analog
waveform.
The analog carrier signal is manipulated to uniquely
identify the digital data being carried.

Mechanisms for Modulating Digital Data into Analog
Signal is done by certain techniques.


Introduction Digital Modulation

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
In BPSK the transmitted signal is a sinusoid of fixed
amplitude.
It has one fixed phase when data is at one level and when
the data is at the other level the phase is different by
180.
The transmitted signal is,



In BPSK the data b(t) is a stream of binay digit. Then
transmitted BPSK signal is given as,
5
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
The received signal has a,





The output voltage v
o
(kT
b
) at the end of a bit interval
extending from time (k-1)T
b
to KT
b
is,

Spectrum of BPSK
The waveform b(t) is a NRZ binary waveform whose
power spectral density makes an excursion between
and , we have,


The Power Spectral density of the BPSK signal is,


s
P +
s
P
8
Geometrical Representation of BPSK
A BPSK signal can be represented in terms of one
orthonormal signal as


The BPSK signal can be drawn as,


Fig. Geometrical representation of BPSK Signal
The distance d between the signals,

Where E
b
= P
s
T
b
is the energy contained in a bit duration.
( ) t Cos T t u
b 0 1
/ 2 e =
Differential Phase Shift Keying
DPSK is the modification of BPSK.
DPSK eliminates the ambiguity about whether the
demodulated data is inverted or not.
It also avoids the need to provide the synchronous carrier
required at the demodulator for detecting a BPSK signal.




Fig. Generating a DPSK Signal
The data stream to be transmitted is d(t).
11
Differential Phase Shift Keying Cont.
b(t) is applied to a balanced modulator to which is
applied the carrier The modulator output which
is the transmitted signal is,


When d(t) =0 the phase of the carrier does not change
at the beginning of the bit interval.
While when d(t) =1 there is a phase change of
magnitude .

t Cos P
s 0
2 e
Differential Phase Shift Keying Cont.
Fig. Method of recovering data from DPSK Signal
The received signal and the received signal delayed by
the time interval T
b
are multiplied to a multiplier. The
multiplier output is,


Differentially Encoded Phase Shift Keying
DPSK demodulator required a device which operates at
the carrier frequency and provides a delay T
b
.
DEPSK eliminates the need for such a piece of hardware.
In DEPSK synchronous demodulation recovers the signal
b(t) and the decoding of b(t) to generate d(t) is done at
baseband.
The transmitter of DEPSK is identical with DPSK.




Fig. Baseband decoder to obtain d(t) from b(t)
15 Fig. Errors in Differentially Encoded PSK occurs in pair.
(a)
(b)
Differentially Encoded PSK (Cont.)
The signal b(t) is recovered in exactly the same manner
for a BPSK system.
DPSK there is a tendency for bit errors to occur in pairs
but that single bit errors are possible.
In DEPSK errors always occur in pairs.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
PSK that uses phase shifts of 90=/2 rad 4
Different signals generated, each representing 2 bits.
advantage: higher data rate than in PSK (2 bits per bit
interval), while bandwidth occupancy remains the same.
4-PSK can easily be extended to 8-PSK, i.e. n-PSK
higher rate PSK schemes are limited by the ability of
equipment to distinguish small differences in phase.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (Cont.)
Fig. Type D Flip Flop symbol
Fig. Flip Flop Characteristics
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (Cont.)
Fig. An offset QPSK
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (Cont.)
The transmitted output signal is given by,



Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (Cont.)



22
23
24
25
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Fig. QPSK Receiver
QPSK Signal Space Reprsentation (Cont.)
The four quadrature signal can be represented as,


These signals were represented in terms of two
orthonormal signals,





The QPSK signal v
m
(t) can be given as,
QPSK Signal Space Reprsentation (Cont.)





Where T = 2T
b
= Ts


QPSK Signal Space Reprsentation (Cont.)


Non-offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
An additional flip-flop is placed either before even or
odd flip-flop.
So in each transition time T
b
for OQPSK and 2T
b
for
QPSK.
One bit for OQPSK and two bit for QPSK change for
1V to -1V.




In ASK, the two binary values are represented by to
different amplitudes of the carrier frequency.
The resulting modulated signal for one bit time is


Susceptible to noise.
ASK is also called On-Off Keying.
The simplest and most common form of operate as a
switch.
Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber.

=
0 , 0
1 ), 2 cos(
) (
binary
binary t f A
t s
c
t
32

Amplitude Shift Keying (Cont.)

N
baud
= baud rate
f
c
= carrier frequency
The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to the signal
rate S.
B = (1+d)S
d is due to modulation and filtering, lies between 0
and 1.
33

Amplitude Shift Keying (Cont.)

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and
the bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d
= 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This
means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).
Example 3
Given a BW of 10,000 Hz (1000 12,000 Hz), draw the
full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the carriers
and the BWs in each direction. Assume there is no gap
between the bands in 2 directions
Solution:
BW for each direction = 10,000/2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of
the bands
f
c
(forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3,500Hz
f
c
(backward) = 11,000 - 5000/2 = 8,500Hz

Example 4
The digital data stream changes the frequency of the
carrier signal, f
c
.
frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary
1 or 0
Amplitude and phase is not changeable.
Advant: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK
specific frequency changes over a number of intervals,
so voltage (noise) spikes can be ignored
Disadvantage: FSK spectrum is 2 x ASK spectrum.
application: over voice lines, in high-freq. radio
transmission, etc.
36



37
BFSK Generator
38
39
Receiver for a BFSK signal
In BFSK the binary data waveform d(t) generates a
binary signal,


Here d(t) = +1 or -1 corresponds to the logic 1 and 0
of the data waveform.
BFSK Spectrum

In terms of the variable p
H
and p
L
, The BFSK Signal
is,

In the BPSK case b(t) is bipolar i.e. it alternates
between +1 and -1. p
H
and p
L
as a sum of constant
and a bipolar variable, that is,



42
Geometrical Representation of Orthogonal FSK
An orthogonal BFSK can be generated with the
suitable selection of the frequencies of the unit
vector, with m and n integers.



The vector u
1
and u
2
are the m
th
and n
th
harmonics of
the fundamental frequencies f
b
.
The frequency f
H
and f
L
in the BFSK are selected to be
with (m > n)
The corresponding signal vectors are,


The distance between the signal end points is,
Signal space representation of orthogonal BFSK
Geometrical Representation of non-orthogonal FSK
When two FSK signals s
H
(t) and s
L
(t) are not-
orthogonal.
Let us represent the higher frequency signal s
H
(t) as,

Now represent the lower frequency signal s
L
(t) as,
Fig. Signal Space representation for S
H
(t) and S
L
(t) are
not orthogonal
Geometrical Representation of non-orthogonal FSK
The distance separating s
H
(t) and s
L
(t) is,

when the two signals are not orthogonal we have to
evaluate S
11
, S
12
and S
22
.



Geometrical Representation of non-orthogonal FSK
We are using the previous eq. & getting,




The distance separating s
H
(t) and s
L
(t) is,
Now simplifying the equation we get,





The final result is then,


If then the optimum distance d
opt


It uses two-dimensional signaling.
Original information stream is split into two sequences
that consist of odd and even symbols, e.g. B
k
and A
k




A
k
sequence (in-phase comp.) is modulated by
Cos(2f
c
t), B
k
sequence (quadrature-phase comp.) is
modulated by Sin(2f
c
t).
Composite signal is sent through the channel A
k
Cos(2f
c
t)+ B
k
Sin(2f
c
t).

50

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Adv: data rate = 2 bit per interval
51

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

52
53

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

54

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

55
16-QAM Constellation

56
57
58
59
It is also known as correlative coding and partial
response signalling.
It basically introduce controlled inter-symbol
interference (ISI) in data stream.
So encoding a binary bit stream by duobinary enoding
effects a reduction of max. freq. than max. req. of
unencoded data stream.
So bandwidth reduces by using duobinary signalling.
60

Duobinary Encoding

61
The waveform v
D
(k) is therefore,

The inverter output is The differential encoder
(called precoder ) output is,

The input I
2
= b(k-1). So that the inverter output d(k)
is,
62

Duobinary Encoding (Correlative coding)

63

Spectrum of Duobinary Encoding

Find the minimum BW for an FSK signal transmitting at
2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-duplex and the
carriers must be separated by 3,000 Hz
Solution:
BW = baud rate + (f
c1
f
c0
)
The baud rate is the same as the bit rate
BW = 2000 + 3000 =5000 Hz

Example 5
Find the max bit rates for an FSK signal if the BW of the
medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the
carriers must be at least 2000 Hz. Transmission is in full-
duplex mode.
Solution:
BW = baud rate + (f
c1
f
c0
)
The BW for each direction is 6000 Hz
Baud rate = 6000 2000 = 4000
Baud rate = bit rate
Bit rate = 4000 bps

Example 6