Chi-Square (c2) Test

For qualitative data Tests whether observed frequencies are closely similar to hypothesized expected frequencies. Expected frequencies can be probabilities determined by chance or other values based on theory.

Two Tests

One-way (one variable) chi-square:

Tests observed frequencies against a null hypothesis of equal or specified proportions. Tests observed frequencies against specified proportions across all cells of two cross-classified variables. Another way of saying this is that it tests for an interaction.

Two-way (two variable) chi-square:

Frequencies

Observed frequencies the obtained frequency for each category in a study. Expected frequencies the hypothesized frequency for each category given a true null hypothesis.

Calculating Chi-Square (c2)

Determine the expected frequencies. Are the differences between the expected and the observed frequencies large enough to qualify as a rare outcome? Calculate the c2 ratio. Compare against the c2 table with appropriate degrees of freedom.

Blood Type Example

Blood Type

Frequency
Observed (fo) Expected (fe)

O
38 44

A
38 41

B
20 10

AB
4 5

Total
100 100

H0: PO = .44, PA = .41, PB = .10, PAB = .05 H1: H0 is false

( fo fe ) c fe
2

Calculating c2
( fo fe )2 c fe
2

(38 44) (38 41) 2 (20 10) 2 (4 5) 2 44 41 10 5 (6) 2 (3) 2 (10) 2 (1) 2 44 41 10 5 36 9 100 1 44 41 10 5 df = categories (c) - 1 .82 .22 10.00 .20
2

11.24

Chi-Square Distribution

Chi Square Table

Reject H0

Look up the critical value for our df (c-1) and significance level (e.g., p < .05). Is 11.24 greater than 7.81?

If yes, reject the null hypothesis. Conclude blood types are not distributed as in the general population.

About c2

Because differences from expected values are squared, the value of c2 cannot be negative. Because differences are squared, the c2 test is nondirectional. A significant c2 is not necessarily due to big differences, small ones can add up.

Two-Way c2

When observations are crossclassified according to two variables, a two-way test is used. The two-way test examines the relationship between two variables.

It is a test of independence between them.

Null hypothesis: independence. Alternative hypothesis: H0 is false.

Returned Letter Example

Neighborhood

Returned Letters
Yes No Total

Downtown
41 19 60

Suburbia
32 38 70

Campus
47 23 70

Total
120 80 200

H0: Type of neighborhood and return rate of lost letters are independent. H1: H0 is false.

Calculating Expected Frequencies

Neighborhood Returned Letters Yes No Total fo fe fo fe Downtown 41 36 19 24 60 Suburbia 32 42 38 28 70 Campus 47 42 23 28 70 200 80 Total 120

(column total)( row total) fe grand total

fe

(60)(120) 7200 36 200 200

fe

(70)(120) 8400 42 200 200

Calculating Two-Way c2

Expected frequencies are based on the proportions found in the column and row totals. Degrees of freedom are limited by the column and row totals. Once expected frequencies and df have been found, calculate c2 the same as in a one-way test.

Calculating c2
( fo fe )2 c fe
2

(41 36) 2 (32 42) 2 (47 42) 2 (19 24) 2 (38 28) 2 (23 28) 2 36 42 42 24 28 28 0.69 2.38 .060 1.04 3.57 0.89 9.17

df = (columns 1)(rows 1) df = (3-1)(2-1) = 2 From the Chi Square Table, critical value is 5.99. Our value of 9.17 exceeds 5.99 so reject the null. There is a relationship between neighborhood and letter return rate.

Effect Size for c2

2 Cramers Phi Coefficient ( c )

Roughly estimates the proportion of explained variance (predictability) between two qualitative variables.

2 c

c2
n(k 1)

where k is the smaller of the number of rows or columns

.01 = small effect .09 = medium effect .25 = large effect

Precautions

Observations must be independent of each other.

One observation per subject.

Avoid small expected frequencies must be 5 or more. Avoid small sample sizes increases danger of Type II error (retaining a false null hypothesis). Avoid very large sample sizes.

A Repertoire of Hypothesis Tests

z-test for use with normal distributions when is known. t-test for use with one or two groups, when is unknown. F-test (ANOVA) for comparing means for multiple groups. Chi-square test for use with qualitative data.

Null and Alternative Hypotheses

How you write the null and alternative hypothesis varies with the design of the study so does the type of statistic. Which table you use to find the critical value depends on the test statistic (t, F, c2, U, T, H). t and z tests can be directional.

Deciding Which Test to Use

Is data qualitative or quantitative?

If qualitative use Chi-square.

If two, use t-tests, if more use ANOVA

How many groups are there?

Is the design within or between subjects? How many independent variables (IVs or factors) are there?

Summary of t-tests

Single group t-test for one sample compared to a population mean. Independent sample t-test for comparing two groups in a between-subject design. Paired (matched) sample t-test for comparing two groups in a within-subject design.

Summary of ANOVA Tests

One-way ANOVA for one IV, independent samples Repeated Measures ANOVA for one or more IVs where samples are repeated, matched or paired. Two-way (factorial) ANOVA for two or more IVs, independent samples. Mixed ANOVA for two or more IVs, between and within subjects.

Summary of Nonparametric Tests

Two samples, independent groups Mann-Whitney (U).

Like an independent sample t-test.

Two samples, paired, matched or repeated measures Wilcoxon (T).

Like a paired sample t-test.

Three or more samples, independent groups Kruskal-Wallis (H).

Like a one-way ANOVA.

Summary of Qualitative Tests

Chi Square (c2) one variable.

Tests whether frequencies are equally distributed across the possible categories. Tests whether there is an interaction (relationship) between the two variables.

Two-way Chi Square two variables.