BASIL HATIM AND IAN MASON

DISCOURSE TEXTURE
Texture is one of the defining characteristics of text. A text should be: - coherence - cohesive - thematisation Form and Content Investigating area of textuality involves: - Words on the page (written text) - Negotiation of meaning between producer and receiver.

Texture as motivated choice Two point: 1. Motivation, text : social events link between text producer, text expression meaning 2. The nature of coherence texts are intended to be coherent Standards of Textuality Coherence: 1. Logical relation 2. Organization of events, objects and situation 3. Continuity in human experience Cohesion : text specific

and

System Contrasts - deixis, ex: this/that, kita/kami Inference An essential property of the communication process in textual cohesion. Recurrence and Co-reference - recurrence: the repetition of items with the same referent in a text - Co-reference: to activate the same content by using varied expression. - Pro-forms: short substitute items of no independent status, such as pronouns

Partial Recurrence A further kind of lexical cohesion involves the repetition of items lexicalized in different word classes. Pro-form and Ellipsis Anaphoric reference by pro-forms is a device which is subject to the restrictions on syntactic combination in particular languages. ex: it reference to nouns it can be refer to any identifiable portion of text. Text reference: the use of a pro-form to call up an idea or fact inferred from previous text.

Collocation Collocation provides powerful evidence of intentionality and text-type focus. The key word is similar context. Junction Junction is a term used to refer to surface signals of relations among events or situation in a text world. Explicit and Implicit Relations - Internal relation : relation between propositions in the text world. - External relation: relation between events/ processes in the real world.

Theme and Rheme in Translation Two major systems: - thematisation - information The organization of the clause in terms of theme and rheme has come to be collectively referred to as functional sentence perspective. Communicative dynamism refers to the quality which pushes communication forward.

The information structure of a text involves: a. Predictability and recoverability of information, two kinds of information: 1. given information, 2. new information b. Saliency of information c. Shared assumptions Thematic Progression Refers to the way subsequent discourse re-uses previous themes or rhemes according to an overall to plan.

JAN RENKEMA
14. The Derivation of Information

Presuppositions The term presupposition originated in the philosophy of logic, where it is used to denote a special type of implicit information. Information which is explicitly stated is referred to as a claim or an assertion.

Example: (1) It took John seven years to complete his studies. The following information can be derived from this sentence. (1a) There is a person named John. (1b) John was a student. (1c) John was not a brilliant student.

Inferences The term inference (from the Latin inferne meaning to carry in) is used to denote the phenomenon that discourse summons up knowledge or information which can be used to understand the information.
- entailment - conventional implicature - conversational implicature - connotation

The significant cases :

Entailment is a term taken from logic. If A is greater than B and B is greater than C, then it can be concluded that A is greater than C.
Conventional implicature, Grice gave the following example. (16) He is an Englishmen; he is therefore brave. From the word therefore can derive the conclusion that Englishmen are brave Conversational implicature, an example is given in the following conversation. (17) A: Did you already buy fruit? B: The oranges are already in the refrigerator. Connotation, an example is provided by the following story. (18) A father and a son are sitting in a car. They are in a serious accident. The father is killed on impact and the son is taken to the hospital in critical condition. As the victim is wheeled into the operating room, the surgeon exclaim; Oh no, I cant operate. Thats my son!

The role of prior knowledge it is a fascinating phenomenon that discourse often calls up knowledge that can influence the reading or listening process. This knowledge, which the reader or listener already has in mind, is called prior knowledge. To describe the mental framework, Bartlett introduced the schema concept. A schema is a set of organized knowledge about a specific element in the world. By knowledge is meant the stereotypical knowledge that is more or less the same for all language users in a particular culture.

15. Producing discourse

From thought to text The best-known models was developed by Linda Flower and John Hayes Bereiter and Scardamalia developed two models, the knowledge-telling model and the knowledge-transforming model.

(1) The Flower and Hayes Model

The task environment The writing Assignment the text so far

Planning

Writing processes sentence Generation

revision

Audience Model Topic Knowledge

The writers knowledge writing plan

production grammar text standards

(2) The knowledge-telling model

Mental representation of assignment

Knowledge telling process

c k o n n o t w e l n e t d g e

Locate topic identifiers

Locate genre identifiers

Construct memory probes

Retrieve content from memory Using probes

Run tests of appropriateness pass Write (notes, draft, etc.)

fail

d i s c o u r s e

k n o w l e d g e

Update mental representation of text

(3) The knowledge-transforming model

Mental representation Of assignment

Content knowledge

Problem analysis And Goal setting

Discourse knowledge

Content Problem space

Problem translation

Rhetorical Problem space

Problem translation

Knowledge Telling process

Writing skills writing skills can be described either in terms of the process or in terms of the product. The process approach is based on a model of the process. In the product approach, attempts are made to detect differences in writing skills through text analysis. T-unit stands for terminable unit, that is, a main or independent clause with all its modifiers and subordinate clause.

Dr. Sumarlam
KONTEKS DAN INFERENSI DALAM ANALISIS WACANA

Konteks wacana adalah aspek-aspek internal wacana dan segala sesuatu yang secara eksternal melingkupi sebuah wacana. Konteks wacana: 1. Konteks bahasa 2. Konteks luar bahasa

Konteks bahasa = ko-teks = internal-discourse context (konteks internal) Konteks luar bahasa = konteks situasi & budaya = external-discourse context (konteks eksternal) (Malinowski dalam Halliday dan Hasan, 1992:8) - Inferensi adalah proses yang harus dilakukan oleh pendengar atau pembaca untuk memahami maksud pembicara atau penulis.

Pemahaman eksternal konteks dapat dilakukan dengan: 1. prinsip penafsiran personal 2. prinsip penafsiran lokasional 3. prinsip penafsiran temporal 4. prinsip analogi Pertimbangan factor-factor penting: 1. faktor sosial 2. situasional 3. kultural 4. pengetahuan tentang dunia

Prinsip penafsiran personal prinsip ini berkaitan dengan siapa sesungguhnya yang menjadi partisipan di dalam suatu wacana. Dalam hal ini, siapa penutur atau siapa mitra tutur sangat menetukan makna sebuah tuturan. Halliday dan Hasan menyebut penutur dan mitra tutur atau partisipan dengan istilah pelibat wacana (1992:16).

Prinsip penafsiran lokasional Prinsip ini berkenaan dengan penafsiran tempat atau lokasi terjadinya suatu situasi (keadaan, peristiwa, dan proses) dalam rangka memahami wacana. Prinsip penafsiran temporal Prinsip ini berkaitan dengan pemahaman mengenai waktu. Berdasarkan konteksnya kita dapat menafsirkan kapan atau berapa lama waktu terjadinya suatu situasi (peristiwa, keadaan, proses).