1

Multiple Access Techniques

2
Brief Overview of Mobile
Communications
Earliest Systems used by Military and Police
Simplex
Bulky
Late 1940s: Push to Talk FM Systems
Half Duplex Mode
120 kHz RF Bandwidth (3 kHz used)
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (ITMS)
Fully Duplex, Auto-dial, Auto-trunking Phone Systems
Quickly Became Saturated in Major Markets

3
Advent of the Cellular Concept
Techniques and Theory Developed in 1950 & 60s

AT&T Proposes Cellular System to FCC in 1968

1983 FCC Authorizes US Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
Deployed in Chicago
666 Duplex Channels (40 MHz in the 800MHz band)

Late 1991- U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) Implemented

Code Division Multiple Access Developed by Qualcomm.

New Personal Communication Service
Licenses in the 1800/1900 MHz Band Auctioned



4
Techno-politics of Spectrum

Fundamental Driver of New Technology
Progressive Governmental Policies Vital
Explosive Growth of Wireless Market


5
Future Wireless Industry Growth
Tied to:

Governmental Regulatory Decisions
Radio Spectrum Allocations
Consumer Needs
Technological Advances in the Areas of :
Signal Processing
Access
Network Areas
6
Multiple Access
Term has its Origin in Satellite Communications
System of Earth Stations and a Satellite
Used to Mean Sharing a Communications
Channel (of M Hz) among a Group of Users
Signal Space of Time Bandwidth TW
Where T = k/R
Signal Space D = 2TW


7
Partition of Signal Space
8
Duplex Transmission
Frequency Division Duplexing
9
Frequency/Time Division Duplexing
10
Trade-offs between FDD and TDD
Frequency Division Duplexing
Geared toward Individual Channels for each User
Frequency Separation must use Inexpensive Technology

Time Division Duplexing
Eliminates Need for Forward and Reverse Channels
Time Latency
11
Multiple Access Techniques
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Grouped as Narrowband or Wideband Systems

12
Narrowband Systems
Narrow relates single channel BW to coherent BW
Normally operated using Frequency Division Duplexing
Narrowband FDMA
Channel not Shared with other users
Called FDMA/FDD Access Systems
Narrowband TDMA
Users Separated by Time
Called TDMA/FDD or TDMA/TDD Access Systems


13
Wideband Systems
Transmission BW is much larger than Coherence BW

Multipath Fading is not a Problem

Users Transmit in a Large Part of the Spectrum

Many Transmitters use the Same Channel using TDMA

TDMA Allocates Time Slots

14
Frequency Division Multiple Access
Users Receive Unique Channel
Channels Assigned as Users Request Service

15
FDMA vs. TDMA
If an FDMA channel not in use, it is idle, and can not be used by other
users.
After the assignment the reverse and forward channel may transmit
simultaneously and continuously
FDMA implemented as Single channel per carrier (SCPC), and is narrow
band 30 KHz
The symbol time is large as compared to average delay spread. ISI is low,
and no equalization required for NB FDMA
FDMA mobile system is less complex as compared to TDMA. Due to
advancement in DSP this is changing
FDMA is continuous tx scheme, so fewer overhead bits are required as
compared to TDMA
FDMA systems have higher cell site costs as compared to TDMA, because
of SCPC in FDMA, and use of expensive pass band filters to eleminate the
spurious radiations at base stations.
The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers, since both TX and RCVR operate
at the same time, resulting in an incresae in the cost of mobie units and
base stations
FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel
interference
16
Multiple Access Techniques used in wireless
systems
17
Nonlinear Effects in FDMA
Antenna at Base Station Shared by Channels
Nonlinearities of Power Amps and Combiners
Results in Signal Spreading
Generates Intermodulation
Causes Adjacent Channel Interference
And Adjacent Service Interference
18
Example 9.1
Find the IM products, if base station antenna transmits 2 carrier
frequencies, at 1930, and 1932 MHz, that are amplified by a
saturated clipping amplifier. If mobile radi band is allocated
from 1920 to 1940 Mhz, find the in-band and out of band IM
products.
Solution
IM products are mf1+nf2 for all integer values of m and n.
Possible IM products are:
(2n+1)f1-2nf2, (2n+2)f1-(2n+1)f2, (2n+1)f2-2nf, (2n+2)f2-
(2n+1)f1 for n=0,1,2-----

N=0 N=1 N=2

N=3

1930 1926 1922 1918
1928 1924 1920 1916
1932 1936 1940 1944
1934 1938 1942 1946
19
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
First U.S. Analog Cellular System
Based on FDMA/FDD
NBFM Modulates the Carrier
Total Number of Channels is Given by:
Example:
Given allocated BW =12.5 Mhz for each simplex band.
Guard band = 10 Khz, and Channel BW =30 Khz. Find the number of
channels
N =(12.5*10^3-20)/30 = 416

In US each cellular carrier is allocated 416 channels
20
Time Division Multiple Access
Enables Users to Use the Whole Bandwidth on a time Basis

21
TDMA Time Frame
Data Transmitted in a Buffer-and-Burst Method
22
Time Division Multiple Access Features
In TDMA a single carrier frequency with a wide bandwidth is shared
among multiple users. Ecah user is assigned non-overlapping time slot.
Number of time slots per frame depends on (1) available bandwidth, (2)
modulation techniques etc
Transmission for TDMA users is not continuous, but occurs in bursts,
resulting in low battery consumption. The subscriber transmitter may be
turned off during non-transmission periods
Hand off process is simpler for a subscriber, sinc eit can listen to other
base stations during non-transmit times.
AN ENHANCED LINK CONTROL SUCH AS THAT PROVIDED BY
MAHO CAN BE implemented by a subscribet by listening in an idle time
slot in the TDMA frame
TDMA uses different time slots for TX and reception, thus duplexers are not
required.
Even in TDMA/FDD a switch rather than a duplexer is required in the mobile
unit to switch between the TX and RCRVR
23
Time Division Multiple Access Features (Contd)
Adaptive equalization is usually required since Tx speed for a
TDMA system is higher as compared to FDMA
In TDMA the guard band should be minimized. IF the TX
signal at the edges of a time slot are suppressed sharply in
order to reduce the guard band, the TX spectrum will expand,
and cause interference to the adjacent channels
A high synchronization overhead is required, because of
burst transmission.
TDMA transmissions are slotted, this requires the receievr to
be synchronized for each data burst. In addition guard slots
are necessary, to separate users. TDMA systems have larger
overhead as compared to FDMA
TDMA is more flexible, as a number of time slots may be
combined to give a higher capacity to a users. Further more
number of slots combined can be varied for serving different
user requirements. Bandwidth on demand
24
Efficiency of TDMA
25
Frame Efficiency for TDMA
b
OH
= Overhead bits
N
r
= Number of ref bursts per frame
br = number of overhead bits per ref burst
Nt = Traffic bursts per farme
bp = Number of preamble bits traffic burst

26
Number of Channels in TDMA System
Number of Channels is Total Number of
Slots Multiplied by the Channels Available
Example 9.3
Consider GSM system: TDMA/FDD
Forward link BW = 25 MHz, which is segmented into 200
KHZ channels. IF 8 speech channels are supported on a single
radio channel
Find the number of simultaneous users
Assume no guard band
Solution
Number of channels = 8* 25 *10^3/200*10^3 =1000
27
Example 9.4/9.5
Each frame in GSM supports 8 time slots
Each time slot transmits 156.25 bits, and data is
transmitted at 270.833 Kbits in a channel, determine
(1) Time duration of a bit (2) time duration of a slot, (3)
time duration of a frame, (4) how long a user must wait
between two transmissions, assuming the user is using one
time slot

Example 9.5
TDMA efficiency
If a normal time slot consists of 6 trailing bits, 8.25
guard bits, 26 training bits, and 2 traffic bursts of 58
bits of data, find the frame efficiency

28
Solution 9.4/9.5
1. Bit duration : Tb = 1/270.833 Kbps = 3.692 microsecs
2. Slot duration = 156.25* 3.692 =0.577 milliseconds
3. Frame duration = 8 * 0.577 = 4.615 milli secs
4. A user has to wait for a duration of a frame before it gets a chance
for its next transmission

Solution for 9.5
1. A time slot = 6+8.25+26+2*58 = 156.25 bits
2. A frame has 8* 156.25 = 1250 bits
3. Number of overhead bits per farme = 8 *(6+8.25+26) =322 bits
4. Frame efficiency = (1250 -322)/1250 = 74.24 %
29
Overview of Wireless Systems
and Standards
30
Characteristics of AMPS
31
Characteristics of USDC IS 54
32
Characteristics of GSM
33
Capacity Gains of Digital over AMPS
34
Comparison of Standards
35
Data Rates and Efficiency
36
References
On-Ching Yue, Spread Spectrum Mobile Radio,
1977-1982, IEEE Trans. On Vehicular
Technology, Febuary 1983
Rappaport, T. S., Wireless Communication,
Prentice Hall, 1996
Shankar, P. M., Introduction to Wireless
Systems, J. W. Wiley & Sons, 2002

37
Multiple Access Techniques for
Wireless Communication
38
Overview
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Space Division Multiple Access
Packet Radio
39
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Frequency Hopped Multiple Access(FHMA)
Code Division Multiple Access
Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
40
Spread Spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have
a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude
greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth. A PN sequence
converts a narrowband signal to a wideband noise-like signal
before transmission.
Two main types of SSMA:
1. Frequency hopped multiple access (FH)
2. Direct sequence multiple access (DS)
Code division multiple access(CDMA)
Advantage:
1. Immune to multipath interference and robust multiple access capability.
2. Efficient in a multiple user environment
Spread Spectrum multiple access (SSMA)
41
FHMA is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier
frequencies of the individual users are varied in a pseudorandom
fashion within a wideband channel.
In a FH transmitter:
1. The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which
are transmitted on different carrier frequencies.
2. The instantaneous bandwidth of any one transmission burst
is much smaller than the total spread bandwidth.
3. The pseudorandom change of the carrier frequencies of the
user randomizes the occupancy of a specific channel at any
given time.
Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)

42
In FH receiver:
1. A locally generated PN code is used to synchronize the
receivers instantaneous frequency with that of the transmitter.
2. At any given point in time, a frequency hopped signal only
occupies a single, relatively narrow channel since
narrowband FM or FSK is used.
3. FHMA systems often employ energy efficient constant
envelope modulation.
4. Linearity is not an issue, and the power of multiple users at
the receiver does not degrade FHMA performance.
Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA)
(Contd)
43
The difference between FHMA and FDMA
The difference between FHMA and FDMA is that the frequency
hopped signal changes channels at rapid interval.
If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is greater than the
symbol rate, it is referred to as a fast frequency hopping. (FDMA)
If the channel changes at a rate less than or equal to the symbol
rate, it is called slow frequency hopping system.
44
Advantage of FH system
1. A frequency hopped system provides a level of security, since an
unintended receiver that does not know the pseudorandom
sequence of frequency slots must retune rapidly to search for the
signal it wishes to intercept.
2. FH signal is somewhat immune to fading, since error control
coding and interleaving can be used to protect the frequency
hopped signal against deep fades which may occasionally occur
during the hopping sequence.
FH system
45
Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA
The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that
has a chip rate which is orders of magnitudes greater than
the data rate of the message.
All users in CDMA system, use the same carrier
frequency and may transmit simultaneously.
In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by
a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.
Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is
approximately orthogonal to all other codewords.
The receiver performs a time correlation operation to
detect only the specific desired codeword.

46
SSMA
47
The near-far problem
when many mobile users share the same channel, the
strongest received mobile signal will capture the
demodulator at a base station.
In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise
floors at the base station demodulators for the weaker
signals, thereby decreasing the probability that weaker
signals will be received.
CDMA (Contd)
48
Solution: power control
Power control is provided by each base station in a cellular
system and assures that each mobile within the base station
coverage area provides the same signal level to the base
station receiver. This solves the problem of a near by
subscriber over powering the base station
Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly
sampling the radio signal strength indicator levels of each
mobile and then sending a power change command over the
forward radio link.

CDMA (Contd)
49
The features of CDMA
1. Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.
2. CDMA has a soft capacity. Increasing the number of users
in a CDMA system raises the noise floor in a linear manner.
3. Multipath fading may be substantially reduced, because the
signal is spread over a large bandwidth. If the spread
spectrum BW greater than the coherence BW of the
channel, the inherent freq diversty will mitigate the efefcts
of small scale fading.
4. Channel data rates are very high in CDMA system. A Chip
(symbol duration) is usually much smaller than the delay
spread. The PN sequences have low autocorrelation,
multipath which is delayed by more than a chip will appear
as noise. A rake receiver can be used to improve reception
by collecting time delayed versions of the signal
50
The features of CDMA (contd)
Macroscopic Spatial Diversity
CDMA uses co-channel cells it can use macroscopic
spatial diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is
performed by the MSC, which can monitor the user
from 2 or more base stations. MSC then chooses the
best version of the signal at any time.
Self Jamming
It arises because the PN codes of the users are not exact
orthogonal. Hence in despreading of a specific code,
there may be non-zero contributions from other users,
which influences the receiver decision process
The near-far problem occurs in CDMA system.
51
Comparison of DS and FH system
DS FH
Bandwidth PN sequence clock rate
or chip rate
The tuning range of
frequencies
Synchronization Very crucial Less critical
Spectrum Very wide narrow
Near-far problem More likely to occur Less likely to occur
52
Feature FDMA TDMA CDMA
High carrier frequency
stability
Required Not necessary Not necessary
Timing/synchronization Not required Required Required
Near-far problem No No Yes,power control
tech.
Variable transmission
rate
Difficult Easy Easy
Fading mitigation Equalizer
not needed
Equalizer may
be needed
RAKE receiver
possible
Power monitoring Difficult Easy Easy
Zone size Any size Any size Large size difficult
Comparison of FDMA, TDMA, CDMA
53
1. Hybrid FDMA/CDMA(FCDMA)
2. Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped
Multiple Access(DS/FHMA)
3. Time Division CDMA(TCDMA)
4. Time Division Frequency Hopping(TDFH)
Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques
54
The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of subspectras
with smaller bandwidths. Each of these smaller subchannels becomes a
narrowband CDMA system having processing gain lower than the original
CDMA system.
Hybrid FDMA/CDMA(FCDMA)
Advantage: the required bandwidth need not be contiguous and different users
and be allotted different subspectrum bandwidths depending on their requirement.
55
Advantage: they avoid the near-far effect.
Disadvantage: they are not adaptable to the soft handoff process.
Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple
Access(DS/FHMA)
This technique consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center
frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom fashion.
56
Different spreading codes are assigned to different cells. Within
each cell, only one user per cell is allotted a particular time
slot.Thus at any time, only one CDMA user is transmitting in
each cell. When a handoff takes place, the spreading code of the
user is changed to that of the new cell.
Advantage: it avoids the near-far effect .
Time Division CDMA(TCDMA)

57
Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH)

Time Division Frequency Hopping(TDFH)
The subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the
start of a new TDMA frame. In GSM standard,
hopping sequence is predefined and the
subscriber is allowed to hop only on certain
frequencies which are assigned to a cell.
Advantage:
Avoiding a severe fade or erasure event on a
particular channel.
Avoiding the co-channel interference
problems between neighboring cells if two
interfering base station transmitters are made
to transmit on different frequencies at
different times.

58
SDMA controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
From Fig 9.8., we see that different areas covered by the
antenna beam may be served by the same frequency or
different frequencies.
Space Division Multiple Access(SDMA)
59
Space Division Multiple Access(Contd))
Sectorized antennas may be thought of as a primitive
application of SDMA. In the future, adaptive antennas
will likely be used to simultaneously steer energy in the
direction of many users at once and appear to be best
suited for TDMA and CDMA base station architectures.

60
Packet Radio
Packet Radio Protocols
Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)
Protocol
Reservation Protocols

61
Packet Radio
In packet radio (PR) access techniques, many subscribers
attempt to access a single channel in an uncoordinated( or
minimally coordinated) manner. Collisions from the
simultaneous transmissions of multiple transmitters are
detected at the base station receiver, in which case an ACK
or NACK signal is broadcast by the base station to alert the
desired user of received transmission.
The subscribers use a contention technique to transmit on a
common channel. ALOHA protocols are the best examples
of contention techniques.
The performance of contention techniques can be
evaluated by the throughput(T), and the average delay(D).




62
p
V
Packet Radio Protocol
Vulnerable period : the time interval during which the packets are
susceptible to collisions with transmissions form other users.

63
Assumption:
All packets sent by all users have a constant packet length
and fixed, channel data rate.
All other users may generate new packets at random time
intervals.
Packet transmissions occur with a Poisson distribution
having a mean arrival rate of packets per second.
The traffic occupancy or throughput R:
t = R
t Is the is the packet duration in seconds
: Is the mean arrival rate in packets per second

Packet Radio Protocol (Contd)
64
] Pr[ ] Pr[ collision no collision no R T t = =
T: the normalized throughput.
Pr[no collision]: the probability of a user making a successful
packet transmission
!
) Pr(
n
e R
n
R n
=
Pr(n): the probability that n packets are generated by
the user population during a given packet duration
interval is assumed to be Poisson
Packet Radio Protocol (Contd)
A packet is assumed to be successfully transmitted if no other
packets are transmitted during the given packet interval. The
prob that no packets are generated during this interval is given
by (1) with n =0 , ie Pr (0) = e
-R
(1)
65
Packet contention protocols
Based on the type of access, contention
protocols are categorized as :
Random access
No contention among the users, and packets are
transmitted, as they arrive from the user
Scheduled access
Based on coordinated access by the users. Messages
are transmitted within assigned time slots
Hybrid access


66
The pure ALOHA protocol is a random access protocol used for data
transfer. A user accesses the channel as soon as the packet is ready to be
transmitted. Then it waits for an ack or nack, if it gets a nack (a collision)
then it waits for a random amount of time and then retransmits the packet.
The delay increases as the number of users increases, as the prob of collision
increases
!
) 2 (
) Pr(
2
n
e R
n
R n
=
The vulnerable period is , the probability of no collision
during the vulnerable period Pr(n):
The throughput:
R
T
2
Re

=
t 2
At n=0
Pure ALOHA
(9.11)
67
In slotted ALOHA, time is divided into equal time slots of
length greater than the packet duration . The subscribers have
a synchronized time clock and transmit only at the beginning of
the time slot.
t
The vulnerable period for slotted ALOHA is only one
packet duration.
The probability that no other packets will be generated
during the vulnerable period is .
R
e

The throughput:
R
T

= Re
Slotted ALOHA
(9.12)
68
Fig(9.10) shows how ALOHA and slotted ALOHA systems trade-off
throughput for delay
Fig(8.10)
ALOHA Vs. Slotted ALOHA
69
Example 9.6
Determine the maximum throughput that can be achieved using ALOHA and
slotted ALOHA protocols.
Solution:The rate of arrival which maximizes the throughput for ALOHA is found
by taking the derivative of Eq(9.11) and equating it to zero.
Maximum throughput achieved by using the ALOHA protocol is found
by substituting in Eq(9.11), and this value can be seen as the maximum
throughput in Fig(9.10)
2
1
0 Re 2
max
2 2
=
= =

R
e
dR
dT
R R
R
T
2
Re

=
For ALOHA
Throughput = 0.5 exp (-1) = 18. 4%
70
Thus the best traffic utilization one can hope for using ALOHA is 0.184 Erlangs.
Maximum throughput is found by substituting in Eq(9.12), and this value can
be seen as the maximum throughput in Fig 9.10.
Notice that slotted ALOHA provides a maximum channel utilization of 0.368
Erlangs, double that of ALOHA.
The maximum throughput for slotted ALOHA is found by taking the derivative of
Eq(9.12) and equating it to zero.
3679 . 0
1
= =

e T
1
0 Re
max
=
= =

R
e
dR
dT
R R
1839 . 0
2
1
1
= =

e T
Example 9.6 (Contd)
71
CSMA protocols are based on the fact that each terminal on the
network is able to monitor the status of the channel before
transmitting information. If the channel is idle, then the user is
allowed to transmit a packet based on a particular algorithm which
is common to all transmitters on the network.
There are two important parameters for CSMA protocol:
1. Detection delay
2. Propagation delay
Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)

72
Detection delay: a function of the receiver hardware and is the
time required for a terminal to sense whether or not the channel
is idle.
Propagation delay: a relative measure of how fast it takes for a
packet to travel from a base station to a mobile terminal.
m
R t
t
b p
d
=
: the propagation time in seconds
: the channel bit rate
: the expected number of bits in a data packet
: propagation delay in packet transmission units
d
t
p
t
b
R
m
Carrier Sense Multiple Access(CSMA)
73
There are several variations of the CSMA strategy:
1-persistent CSMA: the terminal listens to the channel, and as soon as it
finds channel idle it transmits its message
Non-persistent CSMA: When a terminal receives a nack, it waits for a
random period of time before retransmission. Popular in wireless
applications, where packet transmission interval is much greater than the
propagation delay to the farthest user
p-persistent CSMA: used in slotted ALOHA. IF channel is detected to be
idle, the packet is transmitted in first available slot with prob p, or in the next
slot with prob (1-p)
CSMA/CD: The user monitors its transmission for collisions. If 2 or more
terminals start the transmission at the same time, a collision is detected and
transmission aborted. This can be done if receiver has the capability of listen
while you transmit
DSMAData Sense Multiple Access
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
74
1. Reservation ALOHA: a packet access scheme based
on time division multiplexing. In this protocol,
certain packet slots are assigned with priority, and it
is possible for users to reserve slots for the
transmission of packets.
2. Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA): it uses
a discrete packet time techniques similar to
reservation ALOHA and combines the cyclical frame
structure of TDMA in a manner that allows each
TDMA time slot to carry either voice or data, where
voice is given priority.
Reservation Protocols

75
Capture Effect in Packet Radio
Capture Effect in Packet Radio -------Near-far effect
Advantage: a particular transmitter may capture an intended
receiver, many packets may survive despite collision on
the channel
Disadvantage: a stronger transmitter which is attempting to
communicate to the same receiver.
A useful parameter in analyzing the capture effects in packet
radio protocols is the minimum power ratio of an arriving
packet, relative to the other colliding packets. This radio is
called the capture ratio, and is dependent upon the receiver and
the modulation used.
76
Reference:
1. Wireless CommunicationsTheodore S.Rappaport
2. Introduction to Wireless systemP.Mohana Shankar
77
Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems.
Consequently, the symbol(chip) duration is very short and
usually much less than the channel delay spread. Since PN
sequences have low autocorrelation, multipath which is
delayed by more than a chip will appear as noise. A RAKE
receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting time
delayed versions of the required signal
back
78
Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can
simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more
base stations. The MSC may chose the best version of the
signal at any time without switching frequencies.
back
79
Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-
jamming arises from the fact that the spreading sequences
of different users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the
despreading of a particular PN code, non-zero
contributions to the receiver decision statistic for a desired
user arise from the transmissions of other users in the
system.
back
80
Capacity of Cellular Systems
81
Introduction
Co-channel Interference
Capacity of cellular system
Comparison of the capacity of analog
cellular system and digital cellular system
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
Power Control in CDMA
82
Definition of Channel capacity
Channel capacity: Radio capacity, the maximum number of
channels or users that can be provided in a fixed frequency band.
This parameter is determined by the required carrier-to-interference
ratio (C/I) and the channel bandwidth (B
c
)
The radio capacity of a cellular system is defined as:
N B
B
m
c
t
= radio channels/cell
(9.19)
Where m is the radio capacity metric, B
t
is the total allocated
spectrum for the system, B
c
is the channel bandwidth, and N
is the number of cells in a frequency reuse pattern. N is related
to the co-channel reuse factor (Q).
83
Co-channel Interference
Reverse channel interference: interference at a base station receiver
comes from the subscriber units in the surrounding cells.
Forward channel interference: interference from the surrounding
co-channel base stations to a particular subscriber unit.
Co-channel reuse ratio:
R
D
Q =
(9.14)
The minimum ratio of D/R is required to provide a tolerable level of
co-channel interference.
N Q 3 = For a hexagonal geometry:
N is the number of cells in a frequency reuse pattern
(9.20)
84
Carrier-to-Interference Ratio
85
min
6
1
|
.
|

\
|
>
|
.
|

\
|

I
C
D
R
n
n
0
: path loss exponent in the desired cell
D
0
: distance from the desired base station to the mobile
D
k
: distance of the kth cell from the mobile
n
k
: path loss exponent to the kth interfering base station

=
M
k
n
k
n
k
D
D
I
C
1
0
0
(9.15)
n
n
D
D
I
C

=
6
0
(9.16)
When D
0
=R, and for acceptable performance:
n
I
C
Q
/ 1
min
6
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
>
Co-channel Interference
86
n
n
c
t
c
t
I
C
B
B
Q
B
B
m
/ 2
min
2 /
2
3
6
3
|
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.
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\
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\
|
= =
n
I
C
Q
/ 1
min
6
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Radio capacity
When n=4:
min
3
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
I
C
B
B
m
c
t
(9.22)
87
Comparison of different system
B
c
: bandwidth of a particular system
(C/I)
min
: tolerable value for the same system
B
c
: channel bandwidth for a different system
(C/I)
eq
: minimum C/I value for the different system
2
'
min
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
eq
B
B
I
C
I
C
(9.23)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
'
min
log 20 ) ( ) (
c
c
eq
B
B
dB
I
C
dB
I
C
Let Bc= 6.25, C/I=9 dB for Bc=12.5 , C/I eq=3dB so more capacity
88
Example 9.7
Evaluate four different cellular radio standards, and choose the
one with the maximum radio capacity.
dB I C kHz B A System
c
18 ) / ( , 30 : _
min
= =
dB I C kHz B B System
c
14 ) / ( , 25 : _
min
= =
dB I C kHz B C System
c
12 ) / ( , 5 . 12 : _
min
= =
dB I C kHz B D System
c
9 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _
min
= =
Solution to Example 9.7:
Consider each system for 6.25kHz bandwidth, and use Eq.(9.23)
Based on comparison, the smallest value of (C/I)eq should be selected for
maximum capacity in Eq.(9.22). System D offers the best capacity.
dB I C kHz B A System
eq c
62 . 31 ) 25 . 6 / 30 log( 20 18 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
dB I C kHz B B System
eq c
25 ) 25 . 6 / 25 log( 20 14 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
dB I C kHz B D System
eq c
9 ) 25 . 6 / 25 . 6 log( 20 9 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
dB I C kHz B C System
eq c
15 ) 25 . 6 / 5 . 12 log( 20 12 ) / ( , 25 . 6 : _ = + = =
89
Digital cellular system
R
b
: channel bit rate E
b
: energy per bit
R
c
: rate of the channel code E
c
: energy per code symbol
I
R E
I
R E
I
C
c c b b
= =
(9.24)
2
'
' '
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
c c
c c
eq
B
B
I
R E
I
R E
I
C
I
C
(9.25)
R
c
and B
c
is always linear, if the I is the same in the mobile
environment for two different digital systems, then
3
'
'
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
c
c
B
B
E
E
(9.26)
90
Comparison between FDMA and TDMA
b b
R E C =
c
B I I
0
=
FDMA:
' '
b b
R E C = ' '
0 c
B I I =
TDMA:
|
.
|

\
|
=
I
C
M
B
B
m
t
t
3
2
Radio capacity for FDMA:
E
b
: Energy per bit, I
0
: interference power per Herz
R
b
: radio transmission rates B
c
: Channel bandwidth
91
Example 9.8
Consider an FDMA system with three channels, each having a bandwidth of 10kHz
and a transmission rate of 10kbps. A TDMA system has three time slots, channel
bandwidth of 30kHz, and a transmission rate of 30 kbps. For the TDMA scheme, the
received carrier-to-interference ration for a single user is measured for 1/3 of the time
the channel is in use. For example, C/I can be measured in 333.3 ms in one second.
Thus C/I is given by:
I kHz I B I I
C E R
s
bits E
R E C
c
b b
b
b b
3 30 ' '
3 3
333 . 0
10
'
0 0
4
= = =
= = = =
It can be seen that the received carrier-to-interference ratio for a user in this TDMA
system C/I is the same as C/I for a user in the FDMA system. Therefore, for this
example, FDMA and TDMA have the same radio capacity and consequently the
same spectrum efficiency. However, the required peak power for TDMA is 10logk
higher than FDMA, where k is the number of time slots in a TDMA system of equal
bandwidth.
92
Capacity of Digital Cellular TDMA
In practice, TDMA systems improve capacity by a factor of 3 to
6 times as compared to analog cellular radio system.
1. Powerful error control
2. Speech coding
3. Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)
4. Adaptive channel allocation (ACA)
How to improve capacity in digital cellular TDMA
93
Table 9. 3 Comparison of AMPS with Digital TDMA based Cellular Systems[Rai91]
Parameter AMPS GSM USDC PDC
Bandwidth(MHz) 25 25 25 25
Voice Channels 833 1000 2500 3000
Frequency Reuse(Cluster
sizes)
7 4 or 3 7 or 4 7 or4
Channels/Site 119 250 or 333 357 or 625 429 or 750
Traffic(Erlangs/sq.km) 11.9 27.7 or 40 41 or 74.8 50 or 90.8
Capacity Gain 1.0 2.3 or 3.4 3.5 or 6.3 4.2 or 7.6
94
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
How to reduce interference in CDMA:
- Use multi-sectorized antennas
- Operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX)
In DTX, the transmitter is turned off during the periods of
silence in speech.
1. The capacity of CDMA system is interference limited,
while it is bandwidth limited in TDMA/FDMA.
2. The capacity of CDMA system is soft while the capacity
of TDMA/FDMA system is hard.
3. While TDMA/FDMA reuse frequencies depending on the
isolation between cells provided by the path loss in
terrestrial radio propagation, CDMA can reuse the entire
spectrum for all cells, and this results in a increase of
capacity by a large percentage over the normal frequency
reuse factor.
95
Start by considering a single cell with N users who share the cell:
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
=

=
N S N
S
SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio:
Bit energy-to-noise ratio:
1
/
) / )( 1 (
/
0

=

=
N
R W
W S N
R S
N
E
b
R: base-band information bit rate; W: total RF bandwidth
Considering the background thermal noise in the spread bandwidth
) / ( ) 1 (
/
0
S N
R W
N
E
b
q +
=
) / (
/
/
1
0
S
N E
R W
N
b
q + = The number of users:
W/R: processing gain
Capacity of Cellular CDMA (Contd)
96
How to increase the capacity in CDMA
Antenna sectorization
Incorporate a voice activity monitor
Monitoring of voice activity such that each transmitter is switched
off during periods of no voice activity.
Using these two technique, the new E
b
/N
0
within a sector is:
) / ( ) 1 (
/
'
0
S N
R W
N
E
s
b
q o +
=
The number of users:
(
(
(
(

+ =
'
/ 1
1
0
N
E
R W
N
b
s
o
97
Antenna sectorization
N
0
=1/3N
0
N=3N
N
0
is the interference
N is the number of user
98
Incorporate a voice activity monitor
Monitor voice activity and switch off transmitter during periods
of no voice activity.
When we speak, we normally use pauses between words, and by
turning off the transmitter when no voice activity is detected, we
can reduce the effective number of interfering users.
It is known that speakers are active only 35-40% of the time.
Designate as the voice activity factor, the interference term
becomes (N
s
-1) , where N
s
is the number of users per sector.
The typical value of voice activity factor is assumed to be 3/8.
99
Example 9.9
If W=1.25MHz, R=9600bps, and a minimum acceptable
is found to be 10dB, determine the maximum number of users that
can be supported in a single-cell CDMA system using (a) omni-
directional base station antennas and no voice activity detection,
and (b) 3-sectors at the base station and activity detection with
o=3/8. Assume the system is interference limited.
0
/ N E
b
Solution to Example 9.9
(a) using Eq. (9.31)
14 02 . 13 1
10
9600 / 10 25 . 1
1
6
= + =

+ = N
(b) Using Eq. (9.33) for each sector we can find N
s

7 . 35
10
9600 / 10 25 . 1
375 . 0
1
1
6
=
(

+ =
s
N
The total number of users is given by 3N
s
, since three sectors exist
Within a cell; therefore N=3*35.7=107users/cell.
100
CDMA Power Control
Why use power control?
Since all the mobile users transmit over the same frequency band,
power control is essential to overcome near-far problems.
In CDMA, the system capacity is maximized if each mobile
transmitter power level is controlled so that its signal arrives at the
cell site with the minimum required signal-to-interference ratio.
Power control also plays a role in conserving transmitted signal
power, thereby increasing the battery recharge cycle.
How to implement power control?
forward power control-sampling the RSSI levels
open-loop method
closed-loop method
Power control is a key technique in CDMA system
101
Reference
1. Wireless communications principles &
practice, Theodore S. Rappaport
2. Introduction to wireless communication
systems, P. Mohana Shankar
3. Mobile Communications Enginnering
Theory and Applications, Willian C. Y.
Lee
4. http://www.anlian.com/trainingonline.htm
102
Capacity of CDMA with Multiple
Cells

103

1. CDMA
2. Capacity of Cellular Systems
3. Capacity of Cellular CDMA
4. Compare single cell CDMA with Multiple cell
CDMA
5. Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells
(i) Frequency reuse factor, f
(ii) Impact of Propagation Pathloss on
Frequency reuse of CDMA systems
(iii) Weighing Factor
(iv) CDMA Capacity
6. Conclusions
7. References
Contents
104
CDMA
CDMA : is a spread spectrum technology, which spreads
the information contained in a particular signal of interest
over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal.

This is achieved by multiplying the signal by a very large
bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.
105
1. All The users in CDMA share the same carrier
frequency and may transmit simultaneously
2. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword
which is approximately orthogonal to all other
codewords.
3. The receiver needs to know this codeword used by
the transmitter and it performs time correlation to
detect only the specific desired signal.



Features
106
4. The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an
undesired user has a high detected power as compared to
the desired user. To combat the near-far problem a power
control is used in most CDMA implementations.

5. Capacity: There is no absolute limit on the number of
users in CDMA. But as the number of users in the CDMA
system increase the system performance decreases. The
system performance increases as the number of users dec-
rease.


Features
107
Capacity of Cellular Systems
Channel Capacity: of a radio system is defined as
the maximum number of channels or users that can
be provided in a fixed frequency band.

Spectrum efficiency of a wireless system is determined
by its radio capacity, which depends on the required
Carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) and the channel band-
width (B
c
).



108
Interference
Interference in a cellular system can be due to the surroun-
ding base stations or due tothe surrounding subscriber units.
That is there are two kinds of interferences:

1. Forward channel interference: This is the interference
due to the surrounding co-channel base stations.
2. Reverse channel interference: This is the interference
due to the surrounding subscriber units.

Interference damages the performance of the system, it can
be tolerated to a certain extent that is given by the co-
channel reuse ratio.
109
Capacity of Cellular CDMA
There is no absolute limit on the capacity of CDMA, but
there is a tradeoff between the capacity and performance.

The capacity of CDMA is interference limited, which is
unlike that TDMA and FDMA, which are bandwidth
limited. So to increase the capacity of CDMA we should
reduce the interference.

Interference reducing techniques:
1. Using Multisectorized antenna
2. Operating in discontinues transmission mode
110
1. Using Multisectorized antenna: In this technique we
reduce the interference by using a directional antenna
which spatially isolates the users by receiving signals
from only a fraction of the current users.

2. Discontinues Transmission Mode(DTX): This techn-
ique takes advantage of the intermittent nature of speech.
Here the transmitter is turned off during the period of
silence. If the voice activity factor is , then the
average bit-energy to noise density ratio, without apply-
DTX is

Interference Reduction
Technique
o
111
Where
q is the background noise, B is the bandwidth, R
R is the information bit rate.

With the application of the sectorization, DTX techniques
the bit energy to noise density ratio
) / ( ) 1 (
/
/
0
S N
R W
N E
b
q +
=
That is reduces the interference term from (N-1) to
This increases the bit energy ratio by almost a factor of 8
o ) 1 ( N
) / ( ) 1 (
/
/
0
S N
R W
N E
b
q o +
=
112
Single Cell CDMA vs Multicell CDMA
Multicell Single cell

1. All the base stations The base stations are inde-
are interconnected by pendent.
the mobile switching
center.
2. The weighting factors of The weighting factors of all
all the users are not equal. the users are equal.
3. We need power control In the forward link no power in
both the forward and control is required. Since for
reverse links. a subscriber any interference
caused by the other subscriber
remains at the same level as
desired signal.

113
Capacity of CDMA With Multiple Cells
In CDMA cellular system each base station can only cont-
rol the transmit power of each of its own in-cell users, but it
can not control the power of users in the neighboring cells.

These neighboring users add to the noise floor and decrease
the capacity of the particular cell of interest.
114
Frequency reuse factor
Frequency reuse factor (f): is determined by the amount
of out-of-cell interference. It is defined as

+
=
i
ai i
N U N
N
f
0
0
Where
N
0
: is the total interference power received from
the N-1 users
U
i
: is the number of users in the i th adjacent cell
N
ai
: is the average received power from users in the adjacent
cells


115
Frequency reuse efficiency
Frequency reuse efficiency (F): is the percentage of frequ-
ency reuse factor
F= f x 100%

Average received power (N
ai
): is defined as follows

=
j
i
ij
ai
U
N
N
Where N
iJ
is the power received at the base station of int-
erest from the j th user in the i th cell.

Each adjacent cell may have different number of users and
hence may receive different levels of interference. Therefore
N
ai
is different for each cell user
116
Impact of propagation path loss on the frequency
reuse
Recursive geometric technique: This technique is also
called concentric circle cellular geometry. It considers
that

1. All cells have equal geographic area.
2. Cell of interest is circular and located at the center of
all the surrounding cells.
3. Interference cells are wedged shaped and are arranged
in layers around the center cell of interest.
117
Concentric circle cellular geometry
Fig
118
1. R: is the radius of the cell of interest
2. d
0
: is the minimum distance, such that users in the
center are located no closer than this distance
3. d: is the distance from the base station at which all
the users in the center cell of interest are located, such
that


R d d s s
0
Capacity of CDMA
119
First layer of adjacent interfering cells is found on
R d R 3 s s
Second layer is located on
R d R 5 3 s s
The i th interfering layer is located on
R i d R i ) 1 2 ( ) 1 2 ( + s s
The area A of the cell of interest is
2
2
0
2
R d R A t t t ~ =
120
If A
1
denotes the entire area of the region. If each cell have
the same area A, then there should be M
1

cells that each
span a particular angle ( ), such that:
1
u
1
1
2
M
t
u =
Solving the above equations gives M
1
=8 and
0
1
45 = u
In general:
A
i
=M
i
A=i. M
i
A= i.8A
1 > i
i i 4
1
1
t u
u = =
=
A M R R A
1
2 2
1
) 3 ( = = t t
121
Sectors
Interfering layers can be broken into two sublayers,
an inner sublayer which is on

outer sublayer which is on
0
2 ) 1 2 ( d iR d R i s s
R i d d iR ) 1 2 ( 2
0
+ s s +
Partitioning of layers provide two sectors within each
Wedge shaped cell in a given layer
I nner sector: Which contain a small fraction of area of
The area of the cell and hence fewer users
Outer sector: Which contain much greater fraction of
the area of the cell and hence more users
122
Weighing Factors
Weighing Factors: are used to redistribute the users in the
inner and outer sectors of an adjacent cell, since there is a
wide range of user distributions in the interfering layers.

If K is the user density then the number of users (U) within
the center cell is given be
U=KA.

In the first surrounding layer, the inner and outer sectors of
each cell have areas given by
Inner sector:
8 / 3 8 / ) ) 2 ( ( /
2 2
1 1
A R M A
in
= = t t t
123
Outer sector:
8 / 5 8 / ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ( /
2 2
1 1
A R M A
out
= = t t t
For each first layer cell to possess U=KA users, weighing
factors for the user densities within the inner (W
1in
) and
outer (W
1out
) sectors may be applied such that
1 1 1 1 1 1
/ ) ( / ) ( M A KW M A KW KA U
out out in in
+ = =
) 8 / 5 8 / 3 (
1 1 out in
W W KA KA U + = =
124
Conditions
Optimistic conditions: for frequency reuse (or upper
bound) is seen when W
1in
=1 and W
1out
=1, then 3/8 of the
users will be in the inner sectors and 5/8 of the users will
be in the outer sector and will offer smaller levels of interf-
erence to the center cell.

Worst case: In this case all the users in each of the first
layer cells would be located in the inner sector. The weigh
factors in this case are W
1in
=8/3 and W
1out
=0


125
Concentric circle geometry to find CDMA Capacity
To find the capacity of a multicell CDMA system, the con-
centric circle geometry is used along with a propagation
path loss model to determine the interference from the
adjacent cell users.

We can find the frequency reuse factor from

+
=
i
ai i
N U N
N
f
0
0
Where N
0
is given by
KA P U P U P N
0 0 0 0
) 1 ( = ~ =
Where P
0
is the power received from any of the users in the
center cell
126
In the adjacent cells, each subscriber is power controlled
within its own cell and at a distance d

from its own base
station .

Since propagation path loss are based on all distances greater
Than d
0
, a small forbidden zone having a width 2d
0
is assu-
med to exist in all surrounding rings.

This forbidden zone occupies negligible area and provides
virtually the same interference results as of the case when
there is no forbidden region
127
Interference Power
I nterference Power ( ): At the center of the cell from the
the j th user in the i th interfering cell is given by

n n
j i j i
d d d d P N d r P ) / ( ) / ( ) , , (
0 0
'
0 , 0 , , 0
= = u
j i
P
, , 0
To evaluate this expression we need to calculate d
128
Fig
129
Using the law of cosines it can be shown that, within any
cell in the i th layer
Evaluating d
2
0
2 2 '
) cos 2 ( sin u u d d Ri d d + =
0
2 ) 1 2 ( d iR d R i s s For
2
0
2 2 '
) cos 2 ( sin u u d d Ri d d + + =
For
R i d d iR ) 1 2 ( 2
0
+ s s +
Inner sublayer:
Outer sublayer:
130
Using d

, we can determine the interface power( ) as

j i
P
, , 0
n n
j i j i
d d d d P N d r P ) / ( ) / ( ) , , (
0 0
'
0 , 0 , , 0
= = u
Where n is the propagation path loss exponent. Using this
power we can evaluate the average received power (N
ai
)
from

=
j i
ij
ai
U
N
N
Using which we can evaluate the frequency reuse factor (f)

+
=
i
ai i
N U N
N
f
0
0
131
Conclusions
1. The two factors, voice activity and spatial isolation thro-
ugh the use of multibeam or multisectorized antennas, are
sufficient to render CDMA capacity atleast double that
of FDMA and TDMA under similar assumptions.

2. CDMA can reuse the same (entire) spectrum for all the
cells, thereby increasing the capacity by a large percent-
age of the normal frequency reuse factor. The net increase
in capacity due to the above factors in CDMA over
digital TDMA or FDMA is of the order of 4 to 6 and cu-
rrent analog FM/FDMA it is nearly a factor of 20.

132
Space Division Multiple Access
133
Directional Programmable Antenna
134
135
References
1. Theodore S.Rappaport, Wireless Communications,
Principles and Practice.

2. Jerry D.Gibson, Mobile Communications, Handbook,
second edition.

3. T.S. Rappoport, Effect of Radio Propagation Path Loss
on DS-CDMA Cellular Frequency Reuse Efficiency for
the Reverse Channel, IEEE Vehicular Technology,
Vol.41, Aug 1992
4. Klien S. Gilhousen, On the capacity of a cellular CDMA
system, IEEE Vehicular Technology,Vol.40, May 1991.