1

Reverse of a Regular Language

2
Theorem:
The reverse of a regular language
is a regular language
R
L
L
Proof idea:
Construct NFA that accepts :
R
L
invert the transitions of the NFA
that accepts
L
3
Proof
Since is regular,
there is NFA that accepts
L
Example:
ba ab L + = *
a
b
b
a
L
4
Invert Transitions
a
b
b
a
5
Make old initial state a final state
a
b
b
a
6
Add a new initial state
a
b
b
a

7
a
b
b
a

Resulting machine accepts

R
L
ba ab L + = *
ab a b L
R
+ = *
R
L
is regular
8
Grammars

9
Grammars
Grammars express languages

Example: the English language


verb predicate
noun article phrase noun
predicate phrase noun sentence

_
_
10

walks verb
runs verb
dog noun
boy noun
the article
a article

11
A derivation of the boy walks:


walks boy the
verb boy the
verb noun the
verb noun article
verb phrase noun
predicate phrase noun sentence

_
_
12
A derivation of a dog runs:
runs dog a
verb dog a
verb noun a
verb noun article
verb phrase noun
predicate phrase noun sentence

_
_
13
Language of the grammar:


L = { a boy runs,
a boy walks,
the boy runs,
the boy walks,
a dog runs,
a dog walks,
the dog runs,
the dog walks }
14
Notation

dog noun
boy noun

Variable
or
Non-terminal
Terminal
Production
rule
15
Another Example
Grammar:



Derivation of sentence :

S
aSb S
ab aSb S
ab
aSb S S
16
aabb aaSbb aSb S
aSb S S
aabb

S
aSb S
Grammar:



Derivation of sentence :

17
Other derivations:
aaabbb aaaSbbb aaSbb aSb S
aaaabbbb aaaaSbbbb
aaaSbbb aaSbb aSb S


18
Language of the grammar

S
aSb S
} 0 : { > = n b a L
n n
19
More Notation

Grammar ( ) P S T V G , , , =
: V
: T
: S
: P
Set of variables
Set of terminal symbols
Start variable
Set of Production rules
20
Example

Grammar :

S
aSb S G
( ) P S T V G , , , =
} {S V = } , { b a T =
} , { = S aSb S P
21
More Notation
Sentential Form:
A sentence that contains
variables and terminals

Example:


aaabbb aaaSbbb aaSbb aSb S
Sentential Forms sentence
22

We write:



Instead of:

aaabbb S
*

aaabbb aaaSbbb aaSbb aSb S

23

In general we write:




If:
n
w w
*
1

n
w w w w
3 2 1
24


By default:

w w
*

25
Example

S
aSb S
aaabbb S
aabb S
ab S
S
*
*
*
*

Grammar
Derivations
26
b aaaaaSbbbb aaSbb
aaSbb S
-
-

S
aSb S
Grammar
Example
Derivations
27
Another Grammar Example
Grammar :

A
aAb A
Ab S
Derivations:
aabbb aaAbbb aAbb S
abb aAbb Ab S
b Ab S



G
28
More Derivations

aaaabbbbb aaaaAbbbbb
aaaAbbbb aaAbbb aAbb Ab S


b b a S
bbb aaaaaabbbb S
aaaabbbbb S
n n
-
-
-

29
Language of a Grammar

For a grammar
with start variable :
G
S
} : { ) ( w S w G L
-
=
String of terminals
30
Example
For grammar :

A
aAb A
Ab S
} 0 : { ) ( > = n b b a G L
n n
Since:
b b a S
n n
-

G
31
A Convenient Notation

A
aAb A
| aAb A
the article
a article

the a article |
32
Linear Grammars

33
Linear Grammars
Grammars with
at most one variable at the right side
of a production


Examples:

A
aAb A
Ab S

S
aSb S
34
A Non-Linear Grammar

bSa S
aSb S
S
SS S

Grammar : G
)} ( ) ( : { ) ( w n w n w G L
b a
= =
35
Another Linear Grammar

Grammar :
Ab B
aB A
A S

|
} 0 : { ) ( > = n b a G L
n n
G
36
Right-Linear Grammars
All productions have form:




Example:

xB A
x A
or
a S
abS S

37
Left-Linear Grammars
All productions have form:




Example:
Bx A
a B
B Aab A
Aab S

|
x A
or
38
Regular Grammars

39
Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar

Examples:

a S
abS S

a B
B Aab A
Aab S

|
1
G
2
G
40
Observation
Regular grammars generate regular languages

Examples:
a S
abS S

a ab G L * ) ( ) (
1
=
a B
B Aab A
Aab S

|
* ) ( ) (
2
ab aab G L =
1
G
2
G
41

Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages

42
Theorem
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages
=
43
Theorem - Part 1
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages
_
Any regular grammar generates
a regular language
44
Theorem - Part 2
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages
_
Any regular language is generated
by a regular grammar
45
Proof Part 1
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages
_
The language generated by
any regular grammar is regular
) (G L
G
46
The case of Right-Linear Grammars

Let be a right-linear grammar

We will prove: is regular



Proof idea: We will construct NFA
with

G
) (G L
M
) ( ) ( G L M L =
47
Grammar is right-linear

G
Example:
a B b B
B aa A
B aA S
|
|

48
Construct NFA such that
every state is a grammar variable:
M
a B b B
B aa A
B aA S
|
|

S
F
V
A
B
special
final state
49
Add edges for each production:
S
F
V
A
B
a
aA S
50

S
F
V
A
B
a
B aA S |

51

S
F
V
A
B
a

B aa A
B aA S

|
a
a
52

S
F
V
A
B
a

bB B
B aa A
B aA S

|
a
a
b
53

S
F
V
A
B
a

a bB B
B aa A
B aA S
|
|

a
a
b
a
54

aaaba aaabB aaaB aA S
S
F
V
A
B
a

a
a
b
a
55

S
F
V
A
B
a

a
a
b
a
a bB B
B aa A
B aA S
|
|

G
M
Grammar
NFA
a b a aaab
G L M L
* *
) ( ) (
+
= =
56
In General
A right-linear grammar

has variables:


and productions:
G
, , ,
2 1 0
V V V
j m i
V a a a V
2 1

m i
a a a V
2 1

or
57
We construct the NFA such that:

each variable corresponds to a node:
M
i
V
0
V
F
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
V
special
final state
58
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes
j m i
V a a a V
2 1

i
V
j
V

1
a
2
a
m
a
59
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes
m i
a a a V
2 1

i
V
F
V

1
a
2
a
m
a
60
Resulting NFA looks like this: M
0
V
F
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
V
1
a
3
a
3
a
4
a
8
a
2
a
4
a
5
a
9
a
5
a
9
a
) ( ) ( M L G L = It holds that:
61
The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Let be a left-linear grammar

We will prove: is regular


Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
grammar with

G
) (G L
G
'
R
G L G L ) ( ) (
'
=
62


Since is left-linear grammar
the productions look like:
G
k
a a Ba A
2 1

k
a a a A
2 1

63
Construct right-linear grammar
G
'
In :
G
k
a a Ba A
2 1

In :
G
'
B a a a A
k 1 2

vB A
B v A
R

64
Construct right-linear grammar
G
'
In :
G
k
a a a A
2 1

In :
G
'
1 2
a a a A
k

v A
R
v A
65
It is easy to see that:

Since is right-linear, we have:





R
G L G L ) ( ) (
'
=
) (G L
'
R
G L ) (
'
G
'
) (G L
Regular
Language
Regular
Language
Regular
Language
66
Proof - Part 2
Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
Regular
Languages
_
Any regular language is generated
by some regular grammar
L
G
67
Proof idea:
Let be the NFA with .

Construct from a regular grammar
such that
Any regular language is generated
by some regular grammar
L
G
M
) (M L L =
M G
) ( ) ( G L M L =
68
Since is regular
there is an NFA such that
L
M
) (M L L =
Example:
a
b
a
b

* ) * ( * ab b ab ab L =
) (M L L =
M
1
q
2
q
3
q
0
q
69
Convert to a right-linear grammar M
a
b
a
b

M
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
1 0
aq q
70

a
b
a
b

M
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
2 1
1 1
1 0
aq q
bq q
aq q

71

a
b
a
b

M
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
3 2
2 1
1 1
1 0
bq q
aq q
bq q
aq q

72

a
b
a
b

M
0
q
1
q
2
q
3
q

3
1 3
3 2
2 1
1 1
1 0
q
q q
bq q
aq q
bq q
aq q
G
L M L G L = = ) ( ) (
73
In General
For any transition:
a
q p
Add production:
ap q
variable terminal variable
74
For any final state:
f
q
Add production:

f
q
75
Since is right-linear grammar


is also a regular grammar


with

G
G
L M L G L = = ) ( ) (